joe/rhetorica_ad_herennium
1
0
Fork 0
Code Issues Pull requests Projects Releases Packages Wiki Activity Actions
rhetorica_ad_herennium/sources/book_2.html
Joe Arndt c93af31933 initial commit with chapter converted
2024-07-25 15:36:03 -05:00

3705 lines
No EOL
258 KiB
HTML
Raw Blame History

This file contains invisible Unicode characters

This file contains invisible Unicode characters that are indistinguishable to humans but may be processed differently by a computer. If you think that this is intentional, you can safely ignore this warning. Use the Escape button to reveal them.

This file contains Unicode characters that might be confused with other characters. If you think that this is intentional, you can safely ignore this warning. Use the Escape button to reveal them.

<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">
<html lang="en"><head>
<!-- PARENT:
E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/home.html
-->
<!--
"PERFECT": NO
CONTENT: ok
OUTDATED TEXT: ok
TEXT COMPLETE: ok
TEXT OF NOTES: ok
NOTE NUMBERS CHECKED: ok
SUBSECTIONS NUMBERED: ok
PAGINATION: ok
SPELLCHECKED: ok
PROOFREAD: ok
ILLUSTRATIONS IN SOURCE: none
OTHER PHOTOS: none
ALTS: ok
OBJECT COUNT: NO
UPLINK: ok
LINKS INSERTED: SOME
OFFSITE LINKS VERIFIED: Jul 24
MY LOOK AND FEEL: ok
150‑CHARACTER SUMMARY: ok
W3C VALIDATION: ok
-->
<!-- FUL -->
<!-- 2Whole -->
<!-- LANGUAGES OK -->
<!--
THE FOLLOWING ADDRESS IS DESIGNED TO TRAP E‑MAIL HARVESTERS AND SPAM MAIL: ALL MAIL TO IT IS FILTERED TO TRASH BY MY SERVER. TO CONTACT ME, PLEASE FOLLOW THE LINK AT THE TOP OF THIS PAGE AS DISPLAYED ON YOUR BROWSER.
<A HREF="mailto:rumbunny@penelope.uchicago.edu"><spamcatcher></A>
-->
<script type="text/javascript">
<!-- Begin
if (top.location != self.location) {
top.location = self.location
}
// End -->
</script>
<script type="text/javascript" src="book_2_files/ol.js">
</script>
<title>
LacusCurtius • Ad&nbsp;Herennium — Book&nbsp;II
</title><meta name="description" content="An English translation. The complete work is onsite. Part of a large site on ancient Rome and classical Antiquity."><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8">
<!--<META NAME="twitter:card" CONTENT="summary_large_image">
<META NAME="twitter:title" CONTENT="ccc">
<META NAME="twitter:description" CONTENT="An English translation. The complete work is onsite. Part of a large site on ancient Rome and classical Antiquity.">
<META NAME="twitter:image" CONTENT="Images/ccc/twittercard*.jpg">-->
<!-- base href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/" -->
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="book_2_files/unified.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="book_2_files/colors.css">
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="book_2_files/LIGHT.css">
<link rel="shortcut icon" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/Images/Utility/Icons/favicons/Roman.png">
<link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/Images/Utility/Icons/IPhone/original_text.png">
</head>
<!-- BELONGS TO TARGET="ad_Herennium_E" -->
<body class="default">
<div id="overDiv" style="position:absolute; visibility:hidden; z-index:1000;"></div>
<script type="text/javascript" src="book_2_files/Ebox.js">
</script>
<!--
<P CLASS="m2 smaller right"><SPAN CLASS="smallest">
Short URL for this page:
</SPAN><BR><SPAN CLASS="smaller">
<A CLASS="xURL" HREF="
https://tinyurl.com/SHORTURL
"TARGET="test"
onMouseOver="return Ebox(INARRAY,2,WIDTH,175)"
onMouseOut="nd();">
tinyurl.com/SHORTURL
</A></SPAN></P>
-->
<div class="spacious">
<div align="center">
<img title="" class="setPageWidth" src="book_2_files/empty.gif" alt="
[image ALT: Much of my site will be useless to you if you've got the images turned off!]
"></div>
<table class="headerbox">
<tbody><tr class="header5">
<td class="mailcell">
mail:
<br><a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/HELP/contact.html" target="help" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Bill Thayer
</a>
</td>
<!--
<TD CLASS="flagcell">
<A HREF="
L/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html
"TARGET="ad_Herennium"
onMouseOver="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)"
onMouseOut="nd();">
<IMG TITLE="" CLASS="flag" SRC="
Images/Utility/Flags/Vatican.gif
" ALT="
[image ALT: Clicca hic ad Latinam paginam legendam.]
"><BR>
Latine
</A>
</TD>
-->
<td class="flagcell">
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/I/HELP/Translation.html" target="help" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,It1,WIDTH,ItWidth1)" onmouseout="nd();">
<img title="" class="flag" src="book_2_files/Italy.gif" alt="
[image ALT: Cliccare qui per una pagina di&nbsp;aiuto in Italiano.]
"><br>
Italiano
</a>
</td>
<td class="flagcell">
<a class="help" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/HELP/First_Aid.html" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
<img title="" class="flag" src="book_2_files/thumbnail_002.gif" alt="
[Link to a series of help pages]
"><br>
Help
</a>
</td>
<td class="flagcell">
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/home.html" target="index" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,Up1,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">
<img title="" class="flag" src="book_2_files/up.gif" alt="[Link to the next level up]"><br>
Up
</a>
</td>
<td class="flagcell">
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/home.html" target="index" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,Home1)" onmouseout="nd();">
<img title="" class="flag" src="book_2_files/home__small.gif" alt="[Link to my homepage]"><br>
Home
</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="proofread1">
<td colspan="5"><div align="center"><table>
<tbody><tr>
<td class="previouscell">
<span class="small">previous:</span>
<br><a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
<img title="" class="thumb1" src="book_2_files/previous.gif" alt="
[image ALT: link to previous section]
"><br>
Book&nbsp;I
</a>
</td>
<td><div class="contents">
<p class="halfstart center">
This webpage reproduces part of
<br>
a complete English translation of the
<br>
<span class="bold larger">
Rhetorica ad&nbsp;Herennium
</span>
<br>
published in the
Loeb Classical Library,
<br>
1954
</p><p class="center">
The text is in the public domain.
</p><p class="center">
This page has been carefully proofread
<br>
and I&nbsp;believe it to be free of errors.
<br>
If you find a mistake though,
<br>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/HELP/corrections.html" target="help" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
please let me know!
</a>
</p></div></td>
<td class="nextcell">
<span class="small">next:</span>
<br><a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/3*.html" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
<img title="" class="thumb1" src="book_2_files/next.gif" alt="
[image ALT: link to next section]
"><br>
Book&nbsp;III
</a>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table></div>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2 class="start2">
<span class="green">
Rhetorica ad&nbsp;Herennium
</span>
</h2>
<h1>
<a id="p59"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p59&nbsp;</span></a>
Book&nbsp;II
</h1>
<p class="start justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R1">1</a>
<a class="sec" name="1">1</a>&nbsp;In the preceding Book, Herennius, I&nbsp;briefly set forth the causes with which the speaker must deal,​<a class="ref" id="ref1" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note1" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">1</a>
and also the functions of his art to which he may well devote his
pains, and the means by which he can most easily fulfil these
functions.​<a class="ref" id="ref2" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note2" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">2</a>
But since it was impossible to treat all the topics at once, and
I&nbsp;had primarily to discuss the most important of them in order that
the rest might prove easier for you to understand, I&nbsp;therefore
decided to write first upon those that are the most difficult.
</p><p class="justify">
There are three kinds of causes: Epideictic, Deliberative, and Judicial.
By far the most difficult is the judicial; that is why, I&nbsp;have
disposed of this kind first of all. Of the five tasks of the speaker
Invention is the most important​<a class="ref" id="ref3" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note3" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">3</a>
and the most difficult. That topic too I&nbsp;shall virtually have
disposed of in the present Book; small details will be postponed to
Book&nbsp;III.<a class="ref" id="ref4" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note4" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">4</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="2">2</a>&nbsp;I&nbsp;first undertook to discuss the
six parts of a discourse. In the preceding Book I&nbsp;spoke about the
Introduction, the Statement of Facts, and the Division,​<a class="ref" id="ref5" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note5" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">5</a>
at no greater length than was necessary nor with less clarity than
I&nbsp;judged you desired. I&nbsp;had next to discuss Proof and
Refutation, conjointly. Hence I&nbsp;expounded the different Types of
Issue and their subdivisions,​<a class="ref" id="ref6" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note6" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">6</a> and this at the same time showed
<a id="p61"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p61&nbsp;</span></a>how the Type
of Issue and its subdivision are to be found in a given cause. Then
I&nbsp;explained how the Point to Adjudicate is properly sought; this
found, we must see that the complete economy of the entire speech is
directed to it.​<a class="ref" id="ref7" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note7" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">7</a> After that I&nbsp;remarked that there are not a&nbsp;few causes​<a class="ref" id="ref8" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note8" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">8</a> to which several Types of Issue or their subdivisions are applicable.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R2">2</a>
It remained for me, as it seemed, to show by what method we can adapt
the means of invention to each type of issue or its subdivision,​<a class="ref" id="ref9" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note9" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">9</a> and likewise what sort of technical arguments (which the Greeks call <span class="translit_Greek">epicheiremata</span>)​<a class="ref" id="ref10" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note10" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">10</a> one ought to seek​<a class="ref" id="ref11" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note11" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">11</a> or avoid;​<a class="ref" id="ref12" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note12" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">12</a>
both of these departments belong to Proof and Refutation. Then finally
I&nbsp;have explained what kind of Conclusions to speeches one ought to
employ;​<a class="ref" id="ref13" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note13" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">13</a> the Conclusion was the last of the six parts of a discourse.
</p><p class="justify">
First, then, I&nbsp;shall investigate how we should handle causes
representing each Type of Issue, and of course shall give primary
consideration to that type which is the most important and most
difficult.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="3">3</a>&nbsp;In a Conjectural cause the
prosecutor's Statement of Facts should contain, intermingled and
interspersed in it, material inciting suspicion of the defendant, so
that no act, no word, no coming or going, in short nothing that he has
done may be thought to lack a motive. The Statement of Facts of the
defendant's counsel should contain a simple and clear statement, and
should also weaken suspicion.
</p><p class="justify" id="p63"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p63&nbsp;</span>
The scheme of the Conjectural Issue includes six divisions: Probability,
Comparison, Sign, Presumptive Proof, Subsequent Behaviour, and
Confirmatory Proof. I&nbsp;shall explain the meaning of each of these
terms.
</p><p class="justify" id="Probability">
Through Probability​<a class="ref" id="ref14" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note14" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">14</a>
one proves that the crime was profitable to the defendant, and that he
has never abstained from this kind of foul practice. The subheads under
Probability are Motive and Manner of Life.<a class="ref" id="ref15" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note15" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">15</a>
</p><p class="justify" id="Motive">
The Motive​<a class="ref" id="ref16" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note16" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">16</a> is what led the defendant to commit the crime, through the hope it gave him of winning advantages or avoiding disadvantages.​<a class="ref" id="ref17" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note17" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">17</a>
The question is: Did he seek some benefit from the crime — honour,
money, or power? Did he wish to satisfy some passion — love or a like <span class="whole">over­powering</span> desire? Or did he seek to avoid some disadvantage — enmities, ill repute, pain, or punishment? <a class="chapter" name="R3">3</a>&nbsp;<a class="sec" name="4">4</a>&nbsp;Here
the prosecutor, if the hope of gaining an advantage is in question,
will disclose his opponent's passion; if the avoidance of a disadvantage
is in question, he will enlarge upon his opponent's fear. The
defendant's counsel, on the other hand, will, if possible, deny that
there was a motive, or will at least vigorously belittle its importance;
then he will say that it is unfair to bring under suspicion of
wrongdoing every one to whom some profit has come from an act.
</p><p class="justify" id="p65"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p65&nbsp;</span>
<a id="Manner_of_Life"></a>
<a class="sec" name="5">5</a>&nbsp;Next the defendant's Manner of Life
will be examined in the light of his previous conduct. First the
prosecutor will consider whether the accused has ever committed a
similar offence.​<a class="ref" id="ref18" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note18" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">18</a>
If he does not find any, he will seek to learn whether the accused has
ever incurred the suspicion of any similar guilt; and it will devolve
upon him to make every effort to relate the defendant's manner of life
to the motive which he has just exposed. For example, if the prosecutor
contends that the motive for the crime was money, let him show that the
defendant has always been covetous; if the motive was public honour,
ambitious; he will thus be able to link the flaw in the defendant's
character with the motive for the crime. If he cannot find a flaw
consistent with the motive, let him find one that is not. If he cannot
show that the defendant is covetous,​<a class="ref" id="ref19" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note19" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">19</a>
let him show that he is a treacherous seducer; in short, if he possibly
can, let him brand the defendant with the stigma of some one fault, or
indeed, of as many faults as possible.​<a class="ref" id="ref20" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note20" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">20</a>
Then, he will say, it is no wonder that the man who in that other
instance acted so basely should have acted so criminally in this
instance too.​<a class="ref" id="ref21" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note21" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">21</a>
If the adversary enjoys a high reputation for purity and integrity, the
prosecutor will say that deeds, not reputation, ought to be considered;
that the defendant has previously concealed his misdeeds,​<a class="ref" id="ref22" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note22" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">22</a>
and he will make it plain that the defendant is not guiltless of
misbehaviour. The defendant's counsel will first show his client's
upright life,​<a class="ref" id="ref23" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note23" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">23</a>
if he can; if he cannot, he will have recourse to thoughtlessness,
folly, youth, force, or undue influence. On these matters
.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. censure ought not to be imposed for conduct extraneous
to the present charge. If the speaker is seriously
<a id="p67"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p67&nbsp;</span></a>handicapped
by the man's baseness and notoriety, he will first take care to say that
false rumours have been spread about an innocent man, and will use the
commonplace that rumour ought not to be believed. If none of these pleas
is practicable, let him use the last resource of defence; let him say
that he is not discussing the man's morals before censors, but the
charges of his opponents before jurors.<a class="ref" id="ref24" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note24" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">24</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R4">4</a>
<a id="Comparison"></a>
<a class="sec" name="6">6</a>&nbsp;Comparison​<a class="ref" id="ref25" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note25" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">25</a>
is used when the prosecutor shows that the act charged by him against
his adversary has benefited no one but the defendant; or that no one but
his adversary could have committed it; or that the adversary could not
have committed it, or at least not so easily, by other means; or that,
blinded by passion, his adversary failed to see any easier means. To
meet this point the defendant's counsel ought to show that the crime
benefited others as well, or that others as well could have done what is
imputed to his client.
</p><p class="justify" id="Sign">
By Signs one shows that the accused sought an opportunity favourable to success. Sign​<a class="ref" id="ref26" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note26" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">26</a>
has six divisions: the Place, the Point of Time, the Duration of Time,
the Occasion, the Hope of Success, the Hope of Escaping Detection.
</p><p class="justify" id="Place">
<a class="sec" name="7">7</a>&nbsp;The Place is examined as follows: Was
it frequented or deserted, always a lonely place, or deserted then at
the moment of the crime? A&nbsp;sacred place or profane, public or
private? What sort of places are adjacent? Could the victim have been
seen or heard? I&nbsp;should willingly describe in detail
<a id="p69"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p69&nbsp;</span></a>which of
these points is serviceable to the defence, and which to the
prosecution, were it not that any one would in a given cause find this
easy to determine. For of Invention it is only the first principles
which ought to originate in theory; all the rest will readily be
supplied by practice.
</p><p class="justify" id="Point_of_Time">
The Point of Time is examined as follows: In what season of the year, in
what part of the day — whether at night or in the daytime — at what
hour of the day​<a class="ref" id="ref27" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note27" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">27</a> or night, is the act alleged to have been committed, and why at such a time?
</p><p class="justify" id="Duration_of_Time">
The Duration of Time will be considered in the following fashion: Was it
long enough to carry this act through, and did the defendant know that
there would be enough time to accomplish it? For it is only of slight
importance that he had enough time to carry out the crime if he could
not in advance have known or have forecast that that would be so.
</p><p class="justify" id="Occasion">
The Occasion is examined as follows: Was it favourable for the
undertaking, or was there a better occasion which was either let pass or
not awaited?
</p><p class="justify" id="Hope_of_Success">
Whether there was any Hope of Success will be investigated as follows: Do the <span class="whole">above-mentioned</span>
signs coincide? Especially, do power, money, good judgement,
foreknowledge, and preparedness appear on one side, and is it proved
that on the other there were weakness, need, stupidity, lack of
foresight, and unpreparedness? Hereby one will know whether the
defendant should have had confidence in his success or not.
</p><p class="justify" id="Hope_of_Escaping_Detection">
What Hope there was of Escaping Detection we seek to learn from confidants, <span class="whole">eye-witnesses</span>, or accomplices, freemen or slaves or both.<a class="ref" id="ref28" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note28" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">28</a>
</p><p class="justify" id="p71"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p71&nbsp;</span>
<a id="Presumptive_Proof"></a>
<a class="chapter" name="R5">5</a>
<a class="sec" name="8">8</a>&nbsp;Through Presumptive Proof guilt is
demonstrated by means of indications that increase certainty and
strengthen suspicion. It falls into three periods: preceding the crime,
contemporaneous with the crime, following the crime.<a class="ref" id="ref29" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note29" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">29</a>
</p><p class="justify">
In respect to the period preceding the crime, one ought to consider
where the defendant was, where he was seen, whether he made some
preparation, met any one, said anything, or showed any sign of having
confidants, accomplices, or means of assistance; whether he was in a
place, or there at a time, at variance with his custom. In respect to
the period contemporaneous with the crime, we shall seek to learn
whether he was seen in the act; whether some noise, outcry, or crash was
heard; or, in short, whether anything was perceived by one of the
senses — sight, hearing, touch, smell, or taste. In respect to the
period following the crime, one will seek to discover whether after the
act was completed there was left behind anything indicating that a crime
was committed, or by whom it was committed. <a id="lividity_due_to_poison"></a>Indicating
that it was committed: for example, if the body of the deceased is
swollen and black and blue it signifies that the man was killed by
poison. Indicating by whom it was committed: for example, if a weapon,
or clothing, or something of the kind was left behind, or a footprint of
the accused was discovered;
<a id="p73"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p73&nbsp;</span></a>if there was
blood on his clothes; or if, after the deed was done, he was caught or
seen in the spot where the crime is alleged to have been perpetrated.
</p><p class="justify" id="Subsequent_Behaviour">
For Subsequent Behaviour we investigate the signs which usually attend guilt or innocence.​<a class="ref" id="ref30" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note30" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">30</a>
The prosecutor will, if possible, say that his adversary, when come
upon, blushed, paled, faltered, spoke uncertainly, collapsed, or made
some offer — signs of a guilty conscience. If the accused has done none
of these things, the prosecutor will say his adversary had even so far
in advance calculated what would actually happen to him that he stood
his ground and replied with the greatest <span class="whole">self-assurance</span> — signs of audacity, and not of innocence. The defendant's counsel, if his client has shown fear, will say that he was moved,​<a class="ref" id="ref31" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note31" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">31</a>
not by a guilty conscience, but by the magnitude of his peril; if his
client has not shown fear, counsel will say that he was unmoved because
he relied on his innocence.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R6">6</a>
<a class="sec" name="9">9</a>&nbsp;Confirmatory Proof​<a class="ref" id="ref32" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note32" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">32</a> is what we employ finally, when suspicion has been established. It has special and common topics.​<a class="ref" id="ref33" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note33" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">33</a>
The special topics are those which only the prosecution, or those which
only the defence, can use. The common topics are those which are used
now by the defence, and now by the prosecution, depending on the case.
In a conjectural
<a id="p75"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p75&nbsp;</span></a>cause the
prosecutor uses a special topic when he says that wicked men ought not
to be pitied, and expatiates upon the atrocity of the crime. The
defendant's counsel uses a special topic when he tries to win pity, and
charges the prosecutor with slander. These topics are common to both
prosecution and defence: to speak for​<a class="ref" id="ref34" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note34" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">34</a>
or against witnesses, for or against the testimony given under torture,
for or against presumptive proof, and for or against rumours.<a class="ref" id="ref35" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note35" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">35</a>
</p><p class="justify">
In favour of witnesses​<a class="ref" id="ref36" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note36" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">36</a>
we shall speak under the heads: (a)&nbsp;authority and manner of life
of the witnesses, and (b)&nbsp;the consistency of their evidence.
Against witnesses, under the heads: (a)&nbsp;their base manner of
living; (b)&nbsp;the contradictory character of their testimony;
(c)&nbsp;if we contend that what they allege to have happened either
could not have happened or did not happen, or that they could not have
known it, or that it is partiality which inspires their words and
inferences. These topics will appertain both to the discrediting and to
the examination of witnesses.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R7">7</a>
<a class="sec" name="10">10</a>&nbsp;We shall speak in favour of the testimony given under torture​<a class="ref" id="ref37" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note37" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">37</a>
when we show that it was in order to discover the truth that our
ancestors wished investigations to make use of torture and the rack, and
that men are compelled by violent pain to tell all they know. Moreover,
such reasoning will have
<a id="p77"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p77&nbsp;</span></a>the greater
force if we give the confessions elicited under torture an appearance of
plausibility by the same argumentative procedure as is used in treating
any question of fact. And this, too, we shall have to do with the
evidence of witnesses. Against the testimony given under torture we
shall speak as follows: In the first place, our ancestors wished
inquisitions to be introduced only in connection with unambiguous
matters, when the true statement in the inquisition could be recognized
and the false reply refuted; for example, if they sought to learn in
what place some object was put, or if there was in question something
like that which could be seen, or be verified by means of footprints, or
be perceived by some like sign. We then shall say that pain ought not
to be relied upon, because one person is less exhausted by pain, or more
<span class="whole">resource</span>­ful in fabrication, than another,
and also because it is often possible to know or divine what the
presiding justice wishes to hear, and the witness knows that when he has
said this his pain will be at an end. Such reasoning will find favour,
if, by a plausible argument, we refute the statements made in the
testimony given under torture; and to accomplish this we should use the
divisions under the Conjectural Issue which I&nbsp;have set forth above.<a class="ref" id="ref38" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note38" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">38</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="11">11</a>&nbsp;In favour of presumptive proof,
signs, and the other means of increasing suspicion it is advantageous to
speak as follows: When there is a concurrence of many circumstantial
indications and signs that agree with one another, the result ought to
appear as clear fact, not surmise. Again, signs and presumptive proof
deserve more credence than witnesses, for these first are presented
precisely as they occurred in
<a id="p79"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p79&nbsp;</span></a>reality, whereas witnesses can be corrupted by bribery, or partiality, or intimation, or animosity.​<a class="ref" id="ref39" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note39" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">39</a>
Against presumptive proof, signs, and the other provocatives of
suspicion we shall speak in the following fashion: we shall show that
nothing is safe from attack by suspicion, and then we shall weaken each
and every reason for suspicion and try to show that it applies to us no
more than to any one else; it is a shameful outrage to consider
suspicion and conjecture, in the absence of witnesses, as sufficiently
corroborative.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R8">8</a>
<a class="sec" name="12">12</a>&nbsp;We shall speak in favour of rumour
by saying that a report is not wont to be created recklessly and without
some foundation, and that there was no reason for anybody wholly to
invent and fabricate one; and, moreover, if other rumours usually are
lies, we shall prove by argument that this one is true. We shall speak
against rumours if we first show that many rumours are false, and cite
examples of false report; if we say that the rumours were the invention
of our enemies or of other men malicious and slanderous by nature; and
if we either present some story invented against our adversaries which
we declare to be in every mouth, or produce a true report carrying some
disgrace to them, and say we yet have no faith in it for the reason that
any person at all can produce and spread any disgraceful rumour or
fiction about any other person. If, nevertheless, a rumour seems highly
plausible, we can destroy its authority by logical argument.
</p><p class="justify" id="p81"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p81&nbsp;</span>
Because the Conjectural Issue is the hardest to treat and in actual causes​<a class="ref" id="ref40" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note40" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">40</a>
needs to be treated most often, I&nbsp;have the more carefully examined
all its divisions, in order that we may not be hindered by even the
slightest hesitation or blunder, if only we have applied these precepts
of theory in assiduous practice. Now let me turn to the subtypes of
Legal Issue.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R9">9</a>
<a class="sec" name="13">13</a>&nbsp;When the intention of the framer appears at variance with the letter of a text, speaking in support of the letter​<a class="ref" id="ref41" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note41" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">41</a>
we shall employ the following topics: first, after the Statement of
Facts, a eulogy of the framer and then the reading aloud of the text;
next the questioning of our adversaries: Are they duly aware that this
text was in a law, will, contract, or any other document involved in the
cause?; then a comparison of the text with the admitted act of our
adversaries: Which should the judge follow — a&nbsp;document carefully
draughted, or an interpretation cunningly invented? After that the
interpretation devised and given to the text by our adversaries will be
disparaged and weakened. Then the question will be raised: What risk
would the writer have run by adding an entry of that kind had he really
intended it, or was it impossible to write it out in full? Then we shall
ascertain the writer's situation and present the reason why he had in
mind what he wrote, and show that that text is clear, concise, apt,
complete, and planned with precision. Thereupon we shall cite examples
of judgements rendered in favour of the text, although adversaries
raised the issue of spirit and intention. Finally, we shall show the
danger of departing from the letter of the text. The commonplace here is
that against one who, though confessing
<a id="p83"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p83&nbsp;</span></a>that he has violated the mandates of a statute or the directions of a will, yet seeks to defend his act.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R10">10</a>
<a class="sec" name="14">14</a>&nbsp;In favour of the intention we shall
speak as follows: first we shall praise the framer for deft conciseness
in having written only what was necessary; he did not think it
necessary to write what could be understood without a text. Next we
shall say that to follow the words literally and to neglect the
intention is the method of a pettifogger.​<a class="ref" id="ref42" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note42" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">42</a>
Then, we shall contend, the letter either cannot be carried out, or at
least not without violation of Statute Law, Legal Custom, the Law of
Nature, or Equity​<a class="ref" id="ref43" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note43" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">43</a>
— all these, as no one will deny, the writer wished to be most strictly
observed; but on the contrary, what we have done is absolutely just.
Further, the interpretation of our adversaries is either no
interpretation, or is unreasonable, unjust, impracticable, or
inconsistent with past or subsequent interpretations, or is in
disagreement with the common law​<a class="ref" id="ref44" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note44" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">44</a>
or with other generally binding rules of law or with previous
decisions. Next we shall cite instances of decisions rendered in favour
of the intention and contrary to the letter, and then
<a id="p85"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p85&nbsp;</span></a>read and
explain laws or contracts which had been written down in concise form
and yet in which the intention of the framer is understood. The
commonplace here is that against one who reads a text and does not
interpret the writer's intention.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="15">15</a>&nbsp;When two laws conflict, we must
first see whether they have been superseded or restricted, and then
whether their disagreement is such that one commands and the other
prohibits, or one compels and the other allows. It will be a weak
defence indeed for a person to say that he failed to do what one law
ordained, because another law made it optional; for obligation is more
binding than mere permission. So also it is a meagre defence for a
person to show that he has observed the obligation of a law which has
been superseded or restricted, without heeding the obligation of the
later law. After these considerations we shall at once pass to the
exposition, reading, and warm recommendation of the law favourable to
us. Then we shall elucidate the intention of the opposing law and
appropriate it for the advantage of our cause. Finally, we shall take
over the theory of Law from the Absolute Juridical Issue, and examine
with which side the departments of Law hold; this subtype of a Juridical
Issue I&nbsp;shall discuss later.<a class="ref" id="ref45" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note45" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">45</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R11">11</a>
<a class="sec" name="16">16</a>&nbsp;If a text is regarded as ambiguous,
because it can be interpreted in two or more meanings, the treatment is
as follows: first we must examine whether it is indeed ambiguous; then
we must show how it would have been written if the writer had wished it
to have the meaning which our adversaries give to it; next, that our
interpretation is practicable, and practicable in conformity with the
Honourable and the Right, with Statute Law, Legal Custom,
<a id="p87"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p87&nbsp;</span></a>the Law of Nature, or Equity;​<a class="ref" id="ref46" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note46" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">46</a>
of our adversaries' interpretation the opposite is true; and the text
is not ambiguous since one well understands which is the true sense.
There are some who think that for the development of this kind of cause a
knowledge of amphibolies as taught by the dialecticians is highly
useful. I,&nbsp;however, believe that this knowledge is of no help at
all, and is, I&nbsp;may even say, a most serious hindrance. In fact
these writers are on the lookout for all amphibolies, even for such as
yield no sense at all in one of the two interpretations. Accordingly,
when some one else speaks, they are his annoying hecklers, and when he
writes, they are his boring and also misty interpreters. And when they
themselves speak, wishing to do so cautiously and deftly, they prove to
be utterly inarticulate. Thus, in their fear to utter some ambiguity
while speaking, they cannot even pronounce their own names. Indeed
I&nbsp;shall refute the childish opinions of these writers by the most
straightforward proofs whenever you wish. For the present it has not
been out of place to make this protest, in order to express my contempt
for the wordy learning of this school of inarticulateness.<a class="ref" id="ref47" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note47" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">47</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R12">12</a>
<a class="sec" name="17">17</a>&nbsp;When we deal with the Issue of
Definition, we shall first briefly define the term in question, as
follows: "He impairs the sovereign majesty of the state who destroys the
elements constituting its dignity. What are these, Quintus Caepio? The
<a id="p89"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p89&nbsp;</span></a>suffrage of
the people and the counsel of the magistracy. No doubt, then, in
demolishing the bridges of the Comitium, you have deprived the people of
their suffrage and the magistracy of their counselling."​<a class="ref" id="ref48" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note48" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">48</a>
Likewise, in reply: "He impairs the sovereign majesty of the state who
inflicts damage upon its dignity. I&nbsp;have not inflicted, but rather
prevented, damage, for I&nbsp;have saved the Treasury, resisted the
licence of wicked men, and kept the majesty of the state from perishing
utterly." Thus the meaning of the term is first explained briefly, and
adapted to the advantage of our cause; then we shall connect our conduct
with the explanation of the term; finally, the principle underlying the
contrary definition will be refuted, as being false, inexpedient,
disgraceful, or harmful — and here we shall borrow our means from the
departments of Law treated under the Absolute Juridical Issue, which
I&nbsp;shall soon discuss.<a class="ref" id="ref49" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note49" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">49</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="18">18</a>&nbsp;In causes based on Transference we first examine whether one has the right to institute an action, claim, or prosecution​<a class="ref" id="ref50" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note50" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">50</a>
in this matter, or whether it should not rather be instituted at
another time, or under another law, or before another examiner. The
pertinent means will be provided by Statute Law, Legal Custom, and
Equity, which I&nbsp;shall discuss in connection with the Absolute
Juridical Issue.<a class="ref" id="ref51" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note51" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">51</a>
</p><p class="justify">
In a cause based on Analogy​<a class="ref" id="ref52" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note52" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">52</a>
we shall first seek to know whether there exists any like text or
decision on matters of greater, less, or like importance; next
<a id="p91"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p91&nbsp;</span></a>whether that
matter is in fact like or unlike the matter in question; then whether
the absence of a text concerning the matter here involved was
intentional, because the framer was unwilling to make any provision, or
because he thought that there was provision enough thanks to the similar
provisions in the other legal texts.
</p><p class="justify">
On the subdivisions of the Legal Issue I&nbsp;have said enough; now I&nbsp;shall turn back to the Juridical.<a class="ref" id="ref53" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note53" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">53</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R13">13</a>
<a class="sec" name="19">19</a>&nbsp;We shall be dealing with an
Absolute Juridical Issue when, without any recourse to a defence
extraneous to the cause, we contend that the act itself which we confess
having committed was lawful. Herein it is proper to examine whether the
act was in accord with the Law. We can discuss this question, once a
cause is given, when we know the departments of which the Law is
constituted. The constituent departments, then, are the following:
Nature, Statute, Custom, Previous Judgements, Equity, and Agreement.<a class="ref" id="ref54" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note54" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">54</a>
</p><p class="justify" id="p93"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p93&nbsp;</span>
To the Law of Nature​<a class="ref" id="ref55" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note55" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">55</a>
belong the duties observed because of kinship or family loyalty. In
accordance with this kind of Law parents are cherished by their
children, and children by their parents.
</p><p class="justify">
Statute Law​<a class="ref" id="ref56" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note56" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">56</a>
is that kind of Law which is sanctioned by the will of the people; for
example, you are to appear before the court when summoned to do so.<a class="ref" id="ref57" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note57" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">57</a>
</p><p class="justify">
Legal Custom​<a class="ref" id="ref58" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note58" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">58</a>
is that which, in the absence of any statute, is by usage endowed with
the force of statute law; for example, the money you have deposited with
a banker you may rightly seek from his partner.<a class="ref" id="ref59" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note59" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">59</a>
</p><p class="justify">
It is a Previous Judgement​<a class="ref" id="ref60" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note60" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">60</a>
what on the same question a sentence has been passed or a decree
interposed. These are often contradictory, according as one judge,
praetor, consul, or tribune of the plebs has determined differently from
another; and it often happens that on the very same matter one has
decree or decided differently from another. For example, Marcus Drusus,
city praetor, granted an action on breach of contract against an heir,
whereas Sextus Julius refused to do so.​<a class="ref" id="ref61" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note61" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">61</a> Again, Gaius
<a id="p95"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p95&nbsp;</span></a>Caelius, sitting in judgement, acquitted​<a class="ref" id="ref62" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note62" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">62</a> of the charge of injury​<a class="ref" id="ref63" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note63" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">63</a> the man who had by name attacked the poet Lucilius on the stage, while Publius Mucius condemned​<a class="ref" id="ref64" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note64" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">64</a> the man who had specifically named the poet Lucius Accius. <a class="sec" name="20">20</a>&nbsp;Therefore,
because different past judgements can be offered for a like case, we
shall, when this comes to pass, compare the judges, the circumstances,
and the number of decisions.
</p><p class="justify">
The Law rests on Equity​<a class="ref" id="ref65" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note65" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">65</a>
when it seems to agree with truth and the general welfare; for example,
a man who is more than sixty years old, and pleads illness, shall
substitute an attorney for himself.​<a class="ref" id="ref66" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note66" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">66</a> Thus according to circumstances and a person's status virtually a new kind of Law may well be established.
</p><p class="justify">
It is Law founded on Agreement​<a class="ref" id="ref67" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note67" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">67</a>
if the parties have made some contract between themselves — if there is
some covenant between parties. There are agreements which must be
observed according to statutes, as for example: "When parties have
contract on the matter, party shall plead; if they do not have contract,
party shall state outline of cause in the Comitium or the Forum before
midday."​<a class="ref" id="ref68" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note68" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">68</a> There are also agreements which, independently of statutes,
<a id="p97"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p97&nbsp;</span></a>are binding by virtue of the covenant itself; these are said to obtain at Law.
</p><p class="justify">
These, then, are the divisions of Law by means of which one should
demonstrate the injustice or establish the justice of an act — which we
see to be the end sought in an Absolute Juridical cause.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R14">14</a>
<a class="sec" name="21">21</a>&nbsp;When Comparison​<a class="ref" id="ref69" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note69" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">69</a>
is used to examine whether it was better to do that which the defendant
says he did, or that which the prosecutor says should have been done,
it will be proper first to ascertain from the conflict which was the
more advantageous, that is, more honourable, practicable, and
profitable.​<a class="ref" id="ref70" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note70" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">70</a>
Next we ought to discover whether the defendant himself should have
decided which was the more advantageous, or whether the right to
determine this belonged to others. Then the prosecutor, in accordance
with the procedure in a conjectural cause, will interpose a suspicion
leading to the belief that the defendant had not by his act intended to
prefer the better to the worse, but had carried out the business with
wilful fraud on some plausible ground. Let the defendant's counsel, on
his side, refute the conjectural argument referred to above. Then the
question will be whether this development could have been prevented from
reaching such a pass. <a class="sec" name="22">22</a>&nbsp;These points
thus treated, the prosecutor will use the commonplace against one who
has preferred the disadvantageous to the advantageous when he lacked the
right of decision. <a name="22.2"></a>The defendant's counsel, on his
part, will use a commonplace in the form of complaint against those who
deem it equitable to prefer the ruinous to the advantageous; and at the
same time let him ask the accusers, and the jurors themselves, what they
would have done had they been in the defendant's place,
<a id="p99"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p99&nbsp;</span></a>and he will set before their eyes the time, the place, the circumstances, and the defendant's deliberations.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R15">15</a>
<a name="22.2"></a>Shifting the Question of Guilt takes place when the defendant refers the reason for his act to the crime committed by others.​<a class="ref" id="ref71" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note71" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">71</a> <a name="22.3"></a>First
we must examine whether the Law permits the shifting of the issue of
guilt to another; next we must see whether the offence which is being
imputed to another is as serious as that with which the defendant is
charged; then whether the defendant ought to have transgressed in the
same way as another had previously; next, whether a judicial decision
ought not to have been rendered before he committed his act; then, in
the absence of a judicial decision on the offence which is being imputed
to another, whether a decision ought now to be rendered on a matter
which has never become to trial.​<a class="ref" id="ref72" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note72" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">72</a> <a name="22.4"></a>Here the prosecutor's commonplace is against one who believes that violence ought to prevail over judicial decisions.​<a class="ref" id="ref73" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note73" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">73</a> <a name="22.5"></a>Furthermore,
he will ask his adversaries what would happen if everyone else should
do the same as they, and should inflict punishment upon persons who have
not been convicted, contending that the adversaries have set the
example. <a name="22.6"></a>What if the accuser himself had wished to do likewise? <a name="22.7"></a>The
defendant's counsel will set forth the atrocity of the crime committed
by those to whom he is shifting the issue of guilt; he will present
before the eyes of the hearers the circumstances, the place, and the
time so that they may think that it was either impossible or inexpedient
for the matter to come to trial.<a class="ref" id="ref74" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note74" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">74</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R16">16</a>
<a class="sec" name="23">23</a>&nbsp;Through the Acknowledgement​<a class="ref" id="ref75" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note75" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">75</a> we plead for pardon. The Acknowledgement includes the Exculpation and the Plea for Mercy.
</p><p class="justify" id="p101"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p101&nbsp;</span>
The Exculpation is our denial that we acted with intent. Subheads under
Plea of Exculpation are Necessity, Accident, and Ignorance. These are to
be explained first, and then, as it seems, it will be best to return to
the Plea for Mercy. One must first consider whether it was the
defendant's fault that he was brought to this necessity.​<a class="ref" id="ref76" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note76" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">76</a>
After that we must inquire what means he had to avoid or lighten this
superior force. Next, did he who offers necessity as an excuse try to
do, or to contrive, what he could against it? Then, cannot some grounds
for suspicion be drawn from the procedure in a conjectural issue, which
would signify that the deed attributed to necessity was premeditated?
Finally, if there was some extreme necessity, is it proper to deem this a
sufficient excuse?
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="24">24</a>&nbsp;If the defendant says that he erred through ignorance,​<a class="ref" id="ref77" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note77" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">77</a>
the first question will be: Could he or could he not have been
uninformed? Next, did he or did he not make an effort to inform himself?
Then, is his ignorance attributable to accident or to his own fault?
For a person who declares that his reason fled because of wine or love
or anger, will appear to have lacked comprehension through fault of
character rather than ignorance;​<a class="ref" id="ref78" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note78" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">78</a> he will therefore not justify himself on the ground of ignorance, but will taint himself with guilt.​<a class="ref" id="ref79" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note79" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">79</a>
Finally, by means of the procedure in a conjectural issue, we shall
seek to discover whether he was or was not informed, and consider
whether ignorance should be sufficient justification when it is
established that the deed was committed.
</p><p class="justify" id="p103"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p103&nbsp;</span>
When the cause of the crime is attributed to accident,​<a class="ref" id="ref80" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note80" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">80</a>
and counsel for the defence maintains that his client should be
pardoned on that ground, it appears that all the points to be considered
are precisely those prescribed above for necessity; for all these three
divisions of Exculpation are so closely interrelated that virtually the
same rules can be applied to them all.
</p><p class="justify">
Commonplaces​<a class="ref" id="ref81" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note81" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">81</a> in these causes are the following: that of the prosecutor against one who confesses a crime, yet holds the jurors up by prolix <span class="whole">speech-making</span>; for the defence, on humanity and pity,​<a class="ref" id="ref82" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note82" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">82</a> that it is the intention which should always be considered, and that unintentional acts ought not to be regarded as crimes.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R17">17</a>
<a class="sec" name="25">25</a>&nbsp;We shall use the Plea for Mercy​<a class="ref" id="ref83" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note83" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">83</a>
when we confess the crime without attributing it to ignorance, chance,
or necessity, and yet beg for pardon. Here the ground for pardoning is
sought in the following topics: if it seems evident that the good deeds
of the suppliant have been more numerous or more weighty than the bad;
if he is endowed with some virtue, or with good birth; if there is any
hope that he will be of service in the event that he departs unpunished;
if the suppliant himself is shown to have been gentle and
compassionate​<a class="ref" id="ref84" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note84" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">84</a>
in power; if in committing his mistakes he was moved not by hatred or
cruelty, but by a sense of duty and right endeavour; if on a similar
ground others also have been pardoned; if, in the event that we acquit
him, no peril from him appears likely to be our lot in
<a id="p105"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p105&nbsp;</span></a>the future; if as a result of that acquittal no censure will accrue either from our <span class="whole">fellow-citizens</span> or from some other state. <a class="sec" name="26">26</a>&nbsp;Commonplaces:
on humanity, fortune, pity, and the mutability of things. All these
commonplaces, reversed, will be used by the adversary, what will also
amplify and recount the defendant's transgressions. Such a cause is not
admissible in the courts, as I&nbsp;showed in Book&nbsp;I,​<a class="ref" id="ref85" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note85" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">85</a> but because it is admissible either before the Senate or a council, I&nbsp;have decided that I&nbsp;should not pass it over.
</p><p class="justify">
When we wish to Reject the Responsibility, we shall throw the blame for
our crime either upon some circumstance or upon another person.​<a class="ref" id="ref86" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note86" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">86</a>
If upon a person, we must first examine whether the person to whom the
responsibility is transferred had as much influence as the defendant
will represent; next, whether the defendant could somehow have resisted
this influence honourably or safely;​<a class="ref" id="ref87" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note87" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">87</a>
and, even if the conditions are in fullest measure such as the
defendant represents them to be, whether it is nevertheless proper to
make allowances to him just because he acted on another's persuasion.
Then we shall turn the controversy into one of fact and examine in
detail whether there was premeditation. If the responsibility is
transferred to some circumstance, virtually these same precepts and all
those that I&nbsp;have set forth on Necessity​<a class="ref" id="ref88" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note88" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">88</a> are to be observed.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R18">18</a>
<a class="sec" name="27">27</a>&nbsp;Since I&nbsp;believe that
I&nbsp;have fully shown what arguments are advantageous used in each
type of judicial cause, it seems to follow that I&nbsp;should
<a id="p107"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p107&nbsp;</span></a>explain how to develop​<a class="ref" id="ref89" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note89" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">89</a>
these arguments elegantly and completely. To be sure, it is in general
not hard to devise matter which should serve to support a cause, but to
polish what has been devised and to give it a ready delivery is very
hard. Indeed it is this faculty which keeps us from dwelling longer than
necessary on the same topics, from returning again and again to the
same place, abandoning a chain of argument before it has been completed,
and making an inappropriate transition to the next argument. By the
following method, therefore, we can ourselves remember what we have said
in each place, and the hearer can perceive and remember the
distribution of the parts in the whole cause and also in each particular
argument.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="28">28</a>&nbsp;The most complete and perfect
argument, then, is that which is comprised of five parts: the
Proposition, the Reason, the Proof of the Reason, the Embellishment, and
the Résumé.​<a class="ref" id="ref90" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note90" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">90</a> Through the
<a id="p109"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p109&nbsp;</span></a>Proposition​<a class="ref" id="ref91" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note91" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">91</a>
we set forth summarily what we intend to prove. The Reason, by means of
a brief explanation subjoined, sets forth the causal basis for the
Proposition, establishing the truth of what we are urging. The Proof of
the Reason corroborates, by means of additional arguments, the briefly
presented Reason. Embellishment we use in order to adorn and enrich the
argument, after the Proof has been established. The Résumé is a brief
conclusion, drawing together the parts of the argument.
</p><p class="justify">
Hence, to make the most complete use of these five parts, we shall develop an argument as follows:<a class="ref" id="ref92" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note92" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">92</a>
</p><p class="a0 justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R19">19</a>
"We shall show that Ulysses had a motive in killing Ajax."​<a class="ref" id="ref93" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note93" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">93</a>
</p><p class="i1 b0 a0 justify">
"Indeed he wished to rid himself of his bitterest enemy, from whom, with good cause, he feared extreme danger to himself.​<a class="ref" id="ref94" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note94" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">94</a>
</p><p class="i1 b0 a0 justify">
"He saw that, with Ajax alive, his own life would be unsafe; he hoped by
the death of Ajax to secure his own safety; it was his habit to plan an
enemy's destruction by whatsoever wrongful means, when he could not by
rightful, as the undeserved death of Palamedes bears witness.​<a class="ref" id="ref95" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note95" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">95</a> Thus the fear of danger
<a id="p111"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p111&nbsp;</span></a>encouraged him to slay the man from whom he dreaded vengeance, and, in addition, the habit of <span class="whole">wrong-doing</span> robbed him of his scruples at undertaking the evil deed.​<a class="ref" id="ref96" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note96" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">96</a>
</p><p class="i1 b0 a0 justify">
<a class="sec" name="29">29</a>&nbsp;"Now not only do all men have a
motive even in their least peccadillos, but certainly they are attracted
by some sure reward when they enter upon crimes which are by far the
most heinous. If the hope of gaining money has led many a man to
wrongdoing, if from greed for power not a&nbsp;few have tainted
themselves with crime, if numerous men have trafficked for a paltry
profit with arrant deceit, who will find it strange that Ulysses, when
under stress of acute terror, did not refrain from crime? A&nbsp;hero
most brave, most upright, most implacable against his foes, harassed by a
wrong, roused to anger — him the frightened, malevolent, <span class="whole">guilt-conscious</span>, <span class="whole">guile</span>­
ful man wished to destroy; the treacherous man did not wish his bitter
enemy to stay alive. To whom, pray, will this seem strange? For when we
see wild beasts rush eagerly and resolutely to attack one another, we
must not think it incredible that this creature, too — a&nbsp;wild,
cruel, inhuman spirit — set out passionately to destroy his enemy;
especially since in beasts we see no reasoning, good or bad, while he,
we know, always had designs, ever so many, and ever so base."​<a class="ref" id="ref97" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note97" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">97</a>
</p><p class="i1 b0 a0 justify">
<a class="sec" name="30">30</a>&nbsp;"If, then, I&nbsp;have promised to
give the motive which impelled Ulysses to enter upon the crime, and if
I&nbsp;have shown that the reckoning of a bitter enmity and the fear of
danger were the factors, it must
<a id="p113"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p113&nbsp;</span></a>unquestionably be acknowledged that he had a motive for his crime."<a class="ref" id="ref98" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note98" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">98</a>
</p><p class="justify">
An argument comprised of the five parts is, then, the most complete, but
its use is not always necessary. There is a time when the Résumé should
be dispensed with — if the matter is brief enough to be readily
embraced by the memory. There is a situation, too, in which the
Embellishment should be omitted — if the matter proves to be too meagre
for amplification and adornment. And if the argument is brief and the
matter also slight or insignificant, then both the Embellishment and the
Résumé should be left out. This rule which I&nbsp;have just set forth
is to be observed for the last two parts in every argument.​<a class="ref" id="ref99" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note99" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">99</a>
The fullest argument, therefore, is fivefold, the briefest threefold,
and the mean fourfold, lacking either the Embellishment or the Résumé.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R20">20</a>
<a class="sec" name="31">31</a>&nbsp;Defective arguments​<a class="ref" id="ref100" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note100" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">100</a> are of two kinds: one can be refuted​<a class="ref" id="ref101" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note101" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">101</a>
by the adversary, and so belongs to the cause proper; the other,
although likewise invalid, does not need to be refuted. If I&nbsp;do not
add examples, you will be unable clearly to distinguish those arguments
which it is proper to refute in rebuttal, and those which it is proper
to ignore in <span class="whole">disdain</span>­ful silence and to
abstain from refuting. This knowledge of defective arguments will confer
a double advantage. It will warn us to avoid a fault in arguing, and
teach us skilfully to reprehend a fault not avoided by others.
</p><p class="justify">
Since, then, I&nbsp;have shown that a perfect and full argument consists of five parts,​<a class="ref" id="ref102" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note102" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">102</a> let us consider the
<a id="p115"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p115&nbsp;</span></a>faults to
be avoided in each single part of the argument, so that we may ourselves
be able to shun these faults, and by the following rules test the
argument of our adversaries in all its parts and undermine it in some
one of these.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="32">32</a>&nbsp;The Proposition is defective when
an assertion based on some one part or on a majority of individuals, but
not necessarily applicable to all, is referred to all, as if one should
argue as follows: "All the poor would rather do wrong and acquire
riches than do right and remain poor." If a speaker has presented this
sort of Proposition in an argument, without caring to ask of what nature
the Reason or the Proof of the Reason is to be, we shall easily refute
his Proposition by showing that what is true of one dishonest poor man
is being falsely and unjustly applied to all the poor.<a class="ref" id="ref103" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note103" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">103</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="33">33</a>&nbsp;Again, the Proposition is defective
when a rare occurrence is declared to be absolutely impossible, as
follows: "No one can fall in love at a single glance, or as he is
passing by."​<a class="ref" id="ref104" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note104" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">104</a>
For inasmuch as some have fallen in love at first sight, and yet the
speaker has said "no&nbsp;one," it is of no significance whatsoever that
the experience occurs but rarely, provided we understand that it
sometimes does occur, or even only that it can occur.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R21">21</a>
Again, the Proposition is defective when we submit that we have made a
complete enumeration of the possibilities and pass by some pertinent
one,​<a class="ref" id="ref105" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note105" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">105</a>
as follows: "Since, then, it is established that the man was killed, he
must have been killed by robbers, or by enemies, or by you, whom in his
will he made
<a id="p117"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p117&nbsp;</span></a>part-heir.
In that place robbers have never been seen. He had no enemy. If he was
not killed by robbers, of whom there were none, nor by enemies, of whom
he had none, it remains that he was slain by you." We shall refute a
Proposition of this type by showing that others besides those whom the
speaker has enumerated could have undertaken the crime.​<a class="ref" id="ref106" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note106" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">106</a>
Here, for example, when he has said that the murder must have been
committed by robbers, or by enemies, or by us, we shall say that it
could have been committed by the man's slaves or by our co‑heirs. When
we have in this way upset the enumeration made by our accusers, we have
left ourselves wider room for defence. This then is another mistake
always to be avoided in the Proposition — the omission of some pertinent
item when we think that we have included all.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="34">34</a>&nbsp;Again, the Proposition is defective
if it is based on a false enumeration and we present fewer
possibilities than there are in reality, as follows: "There are two
things, men of the jury, which ever impel men to crime: luxury and
greed."​<a class="ref" id="ref107" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note107" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">107</a> "But what about love?," some one will say, "ambition,​<a class="ref" id="ref108" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note108" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">108</a> superstition, the fear of death,​<a class="ref" id="ref109" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note109" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">109</a> the passion for power, and, in short,
<a id="p119"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p119&nbsp;</span></a>the great
multitude of other motives?" Again the enumeration is false when the
possibilities are fewer than we present, as follows: "There are three
emotions that agitate all men: fear, desire, and worry." Indeed it had
been enough to say fear and desire, since worry is necessarily conjoined
with both.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R22">22</a>
Again, the Proposition is defective if it traces things too far back, as
follows: "Stupidity is the mother and matter of all evils. She gives
birth to boundless desires. Furthermore, boundless desires have neither
end nor limit. They breed avarice. Avarice, further, drives men to any
crime you will. Thus it is avarice which has led our adversaries to take
this crime upon themselves."​<a class="ref" id="ref110" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note110" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">110</a>
Here what was said last was enough for a Proposition, lest we copy
Ennius and the other poets, who are licensed to speak as follows:
"O&nbsp;that in Pelion's woods the firwood timbers had not fallen to the
ground, cut down by axes, and that therefrom had not commenced the
undertaking to begin the ship which now is named with the name of Argo,
because in it sailed the picked Argive heroes who were seeking the
golden fleece of the ram from the Colchians, with guile, at King Pelias'
command. For then never would my mistress, misled, have set foot away
from home."​<a class="ref" id="ref111" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note111" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">111</a> Indeed here
<a id="p121"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p121&nbsp;</span></a>it were
adequate, if poets had a care for mere adequacy, to say: "Would that my
misled mistress had not set foot away from home." In the Proposition,
then, we must also carefully guard against this tra­cing of things back
to their remotest origin; for the Proposition does not, like many
others, need to be refuted, but is on its own account defective.<a class="ref" id="ref112" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note112" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">112</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R23">23</a>
<a class="sec" name="35">35</a>&nbsp;The Reason is defective if it is
inappropriate to the Proposition because either weak or groundless. It
is weak when it does not conclusively demonstrate the correctness of the
Proposition, as in Plautus: "To reprove a friend for a fault that
deserves reproof is a thankless task, but in season useful and
profitable." That is the Proposition. Let us see what Reason is
presented: "For​<a class="ref" id="ref113" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note113" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">113</a>
today I&nbsp;shall severely reprove my friend for a fault that much
deserves reproof." His reckoning of what is useful is based on what he
himself is about to do, and not on what it is proper to do.
A&nbsp;Reason is groundless when it rests on a false supposition, as
follows: "One must not flee from love, for it engenders the truest
friendship."​<a class="ref" id="ref114" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note114" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">114</a> Or as follows: "One must spurn philosophy, for it
<a id="p123"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p123&nbsp;</span></a>produces inactivity and sloth."​<a class="ref" id="ref115" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note115" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">115</a> If all these Reasons were not false, we should also be obliged to admit the truth of their Propositions.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="36">36</a>&nbsp;Again, a Reason is weak if the
causal basis which it submits for the Proposition is not a compelling
one. For example, Pacuvius: "The goddess Fortune is mad, blind, and
stupid, some philosophers maintain. They declare that she stands upon a
revolving globe of stone;​<a class="ref" id="ref116" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note116" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">116</a>
whither Chance impels the stone, thither, they say, does Fortune fall.
She is blind, they repeat, for that she fails wholly to perceive whereto
she attaches herself. Moreover they declare that she is mad because she
is cruel, uncertain, and inconstant; stupid because she knows not how
to tell worthy from unworthy. But there are other philosophers who, on
the contrary, deny that in our wretched life there any such thing as
Fortune; there is, they say, Blind Accident. That this is more like the
truth, is proved by the actual experience of life; even as Orestes now
was king, and now became a beggar. Surely by the shipwreck of his
property was this brought to pass, and did not befall by Chance or
Fortune."​<a class="ref" id="ref117" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note117" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">117</a>
Pacuvius here uses a weak Reason when they say that it is truer to
ascribe the guidance of events to Accident rather than to Fortune, for
whichever of these philosophical theories
<a id="p125"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p125&nbsp;</span></a>you hold, it could have happened that one who had been a king became a beggar.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R24">24</a>
<a class="sec" name="37">37</a>&nbsp;Again, a Reason is weak when it
appears to be presented as the Reason, but says precisely the same as
was said in the Proposition,​<a class="ref" id="ref118" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note118" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">118</a>
as follows: "A&nbsp;great evil to mankind is greed, for the reason that
men wrestle with great and many ills on account of the boundless
passion for money." Here the reason merely repeats in other words what
has been said in the Proposition.
</p><p class="justify">
Again, a Reason is weak if the causal basis which it submits for the Proposition is inadequate to the demands of the subject,​<a class="ref" id="ref119" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note119" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">119</a>
as follows: "Wisdom is useful because the wise have been in the habit
of cultivating a sense of duty." Or, "It is useful to have true friends,
for thus you may have persons with whom you can jest." In Reasons of
this kind the Proposition is supported not by a universal or absolute
reason, but by a feeble one.
</p><p class="justify">
Again, the Reason is weak if it can at choice be applied to another Proposition,​<a class="ref" id="ref120" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note120" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">120</a> as in the case of Pacuvius, who presents the same reason for calling Fortune blind as for calling her stupid.<a class="ref" id="ref121" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note121" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">121</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="38">38</a>&nbsp;In the Proof of the Reason, there
are many faults to be avoided in our discourse and also to be watched
for in that of our adversaries. These must be considered the more
carefully because an accurate Proof of the Reason supplies the most
cogent support of the whole argument.
</p><p class="justify" id="p127"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p127&nbsp;</span>
Students in the rhetorical schools, therefore, in Proving the Reason, use a Dilemma,​<a class="ref" id="ref122" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note122" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">122</a>
as follows: "You treat me, father, with undeserved wrong. For if you
think Cresphontes wicked, why did you give me to him for wife? But if he
is honourable, why do you force me to leave such a one against his will
and mine?" Such a Dilemma will either be reversed against the user, or
be rebutted in a single term.​<a class="ref" id="ref123" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note123" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">123</a>
Reversed, as follows: "My daughter, I&nbsp;do not treat you with any
undeserved wrong. If he is honourable, I&nbsp;have given him you in
marriage; but if he is wicked, I&nbsp;shall by divorce free you from
your ills." It will be a rebuttal in a single term if one or the other
alternative is confuted, as follows: "You say: 'For if you think
Cresphontes wicked, why did you give me to him for wife?' I&nbsp;thought
him honourable. I&nbsp;erred. Too late I&nbsp;came to know him, and
knowing him, I&nbsp;fly from him."​<a class="ref" id="ref124" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note124" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">124</a> <a class="chapter" name="R25">25</a>&nbsp;<a class="sec" name="39">39</a>&nbsp;Thus the rebuttal of a dilemma of this type is twofold: the first fuller, the second easier to invent.
</p><p class="justify" id="p129"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p129&nbsp;</span>
<a name="39.2"></a>Again, the Proof of the Reason is faulty when we
misapply a sign designating a variety of things in such a way as to
indicate specifically a single thing,​<a class="ref" id="ref125" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note125" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">125</a>
as follows: "Since he is pale, he must have been sick," or: "She must
have become a mother, since she is holding a baby boy in her arms."​<a class="ref" id="ref126" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note126" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">126</a> <a name="39.3"></a>These
indications do not of themselves offer definite proof, but if there is
concurrence of other like indications, such signs increase probability
not a little.
</p><p class="justify"><a name="39.4"></a>
Again, there is a fault when that which is directed against the adversary can as well fit some one else or the speaker himself,​<a class="ref" id="ref127" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note127" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">127</a> as follows: "Wretched are they who marry wives." "Yet you have married a second."<a class="ref" id="ref128" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note128" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">128</a>
</p><p class="justify"><a name="39.5"></a>
Again, that is faulty which presents a banal defence, as follows: "He was led into crime by anger — or youth — or love."​<a class="ref" id="ref129" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note129" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">129</a> <a name="39.6"></a>For if excuses of this sort are admitted, the greatest crimes will escape unpunished.
</p><p class="justify"><a name="39.7"></a>
Again it is a fault to assume as certain, on the ground that "it is
universally agreed upon," a thing which is still in dispute, as follows:
"Ho! Look you, the gods who guide the movements of the beings that
dwell above and below keep peace among themselves
<a id="p131"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p131&nbsp;</span></a>and join in concord."​<a class="ref" id="ref130" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note130" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">130</a> <a name="39.8"></a>Thus
Thesprotus, as Ennius has presented him, uses this example on his own
authority, as though he had already demonstrated the fact by reasons
sufficiently conclusive.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="40">40</a>&nbsp;Again, that is faulty which appears to be pronounced too late, as it were, and after the matter has been concluded,​<a class="ref" id="ref131" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note131" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">131</a> as follows: "If it had entered my mind, <span class="whole">fellow-citizens</span>,
I&nbsp;should not have been guilty of allowing the matter to come to
such a pass, for I&nbsp;should have done this or that; but at the time
this thought escaped me."
</p><p class="justify">
Again, there is a fault when that which stands as a manifest transgression is yet cloaked by some defence,​<a class="ref" id="ref132" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note132" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">132</a>
as follows: "When all men were seeking you out and you had a most
prosperous kingdom, I&nbsp;forsook you; now that all have deserted you,
I,&nbsp;alone, in greatest peril, prepare to restore you."<a class="ref" id="ref133" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note133" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">133</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R26">26</a>
Again, that is faulty which can be taken in another sense than the speaker intended;​<a class="ref" id="ref134" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note134" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">134</a>
for example, if some influential demagogue should in a speech before
the Assembly say: "It is better to submit to kings than to bad laws." In
fact, these words, though they may be uttered by way of amplification
without sinister intent, are nevertheless because of the speaker's
influence sure to breed a terrible suspicion.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="41">41</a>&nbsp;Again, it is a fault to use false or general definitions;​<a class="ref" id="ref135" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note135" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">135</a> false, as if one should say that there is no
<a id="p133"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p133&nbsp;</span></a>injury except in the form of battery or of insulting language;​<a class="ref" id="ref136" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note136" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">136</a>
general, like that which can be equally well applied to something else,
as if one should say: "An informer, in short, is worthy of death; for
he is a wicked and dangerous citizen." The speaker has offered a
definition no more appropriate to an informer than to a thief, assassin,
or traitor.
</p><p class="justify">
Again, it is a fault to advance proof what has been put in question,​<a class="ref" id="ref137" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note137" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">137</a> as if one should charge another with theft, and accordingly declare that he is a wicked, greedy, and <span class="whole">deceit</span>­ful man — and the evidence for this is that he has stolen from the speaker.<a class="ref" id="ref138" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note138" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">138</a>
</p><p class="justify">
Again, it is a fault to refute one disputed point by another disputed point,​<a class="ref" id="ref139" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note139" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">139</a>
as follows: "You should not be satisfied, Censors, when this defendant
says that he was unable to be present as he had sworn he would be.
I&nbsp;ask, would he have given this same excuse to the tribe of the
soldiers if he had failed to appear for military duty?" This is faulty
because a matter not clearly settled or adjudged, but entangled with
difficulties and based on a like point of dispute is cited as an
example.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="42">42</a>&nbsp;Again, a fault is present when a
matter about which there is the sharpest controversy is not clearly
settled and is allowed to pass as though it were agreed upon, as
follows: "Plainly speaks the oracle's response if you would understand.
He commands that the arms be given to a warrior such as was he who bore
them, should we be zealous to take Pergamum. This warrior I&nbsp;profess
to be. It is but fair
<a id="p135"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p135&nbsp;</span></a>that
I&nbsp;have the use of my cousin's arms and that they be awarded me,
either because I&nbsp;am his kin or, if you will, because I&nbsp;rival
him in valour."<a class="ref" id="ref140" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note140" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">140</a>
</p><p class="justify">
Again, it is a fault to be inconsistent with oneself in one's own
discourse and to contradict what one has said before, as follows: "On
what ground shall&nbsp;I impeach him?", and then to develop this thought
by the following reflection: "For if he has a conscience, why should
you impeach an honourable man? But if he has a shameless character, to
what avail then would you impeach one who, when he has heard the charge,
deems it of little account?" <a class="chapter" name="R27">27</a>&nbsp;He
seems to have provided himself with a sound enough reason for not
making the accusation. What does he say next? "Now at last I&nbsp;will
finish you off from the very first thread."<a class="ref" id="ref141" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note141" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">141</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="43">43</a>&nbsp;Again, that is faulty which is said against the convictions of the judge or the audience​<a class="ref" id="ref142" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note142" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">142</a>
— if the party to which they are devoted, or men whom they hold dear,
should be attacked, or the sentiments of the hearer outraged by some
fault of this kind.
</p><p class="justify">
Again, it is a fault not to prove everything which in the Proposition you have promised to prove.<a class="ref" id="ref143" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note143" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">143</a>
</p><p class="justify">
Again, one must beware of talking on a different subject from the one in dispute​<a class="ref" id="ref144" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note144" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">144</a>
— and in regard to this kind of fault one must take care not to add
anything to, or omit anything from, the subject, and not to change the
question at issue and turn to quite
<a id="p137"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p137&nbsp;</span></a>another;
like the case of Zethus and Amphion in Pacuvius — their controversy,
begun on the subject of music, ends in a disputation on the theory of
wisdom and the utility of virtue.<a class="ref" id="ref145" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note145" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">145</a>
</p><p class="justify">
Again, care must be taken that the prosecutor's charge shall not bear on
one point, and the Exculpation of the defence on another. Many speakers
on the side of the defence are often intentionally guilty of this
irrelevance when pressed by the difficulties of their cause; for
example, if a man accused of having sought a magistracy by bribery
should say that in the army he had often received military gifts from
generals. If we carefully watch for this fault in the speech of our
adversaries we shall often detect that they have nothing to say to the
point.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="sec" name="44">44</a>&nbsp;Again, it is a fault to disparage an art or science or any occupation because of the faults of those engaged in it,​<a class="ref" id="ref146" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note146" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">146</a> as in the case of those who blame rhetoric because of the blameworthy life of some orator.<a class="ref" id="ref147" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note147" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">147</a>
</p><p class="justify">
Again, it is a fault, when you establish that a crime was committed, to
believe you are thereby proving that it was committed by a specific
person, as follows: "It is established that the corpse was disfigured,
swollen, and discoloured; therefore the man was killed by poison." Then,
if the speaker concentrates,
<a id="p139"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p139&nbsp;</span></a>as many
do, on proving that poison was administered, he will be harassed by a
not insignificant fault. The question is not whether the crime was
committed, but who committed it.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R28">28</a>
<a class="sec" name="45">45</a>&nbsp;Again, it is a fault in making a
comparison to bring out one term and either suppress mention of the
other, or treat it rather cursorily;​<a class="ref" id="ref148" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note148" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">148</a>
for example, if in deciding by a comparison whether it is better for
the populace to receive, or not to receive, wheat, the speaker should on
the one hand really take care to enumerate the benefits, but on the
other should pass over the disadvantages and whatever he wishes to
suppress, or should mention only those disadvantages which are least
serious.<a class="ref" id="ref149" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note149" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">149</a>
</p><p class="justify">
Again, it is a fault in making a comparison to think it necessary to disparage one thing when you praise the other;​<a class="ref" id="ref150" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note150" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">150</a>
for example, if the question should arise, who are to be held in
greater honour for services to the Roman republic, the Albensians or the
Pinnensian Vestini,​<a class="ref" id="ref151" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note151" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">151</a>
and the speaker should attack one or the other. Indeed it is not
necessary, if you prefer one, to disparage the other; for you can
manage, when you have given greater praise to one, to allot some portion
of praise to the other, so that you may not be thought to have combated
the truth under influence of partiality.
</p><p class="justify" id="p141"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p141&nbsp;</span>
Again, it is a fault to build upon a name or appellation a dispute which usage can best decide.​<a class="ref" id="ref152" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note152" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">152</a> For example, Sulpicius​<a class="ref" id="ref153" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note153" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">153</a>
had opposed his veto to the recall of the exiles who had not been
permitted to plead their cause; later he changed his mind, and proposing
the same law, said he was offering a different proposal, because he had
changed the name. For, he said, he was recalling not "exiles," but
"those ejected by violence" — as though the dispute concerned the name
by which to call those people, or as though all to whom water and fire
have been formally forbidden are not called exiles. True, we perhaps
excuse Sulpicius if he had a reason for doing this.​<a class="ref" id="ref154" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note154" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">154</a> Yet let us understand that it is a fault to raise a controversy on account of a change in names.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R29">29</a>
<a class="sec" name="46">46</a>&nbsp;Since Embellishment consists of
similes, examples, amplifications, previous judgements, and the other
means which serve to expand and enrich the argument, let us consider the
faults which attach to these.
</p><p class="justify" id="p143"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p143&nbsp;</span>
<a id="simile.defects"></a>
A&nbsp;Simile is defective if it is inexact in any aspect, and lacks a
proper ground for the comparison, or is prejudicial to him who presents
it.<a class="ref" id="ref155" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note155" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">155</a>
</p><p class="justify" id="example.defects">
An Example is defective if it is either false, and hence refutable, or
base, and hence not to be imitated, or if it implies more or less than
the matter demands.<a class="ref" id="ref156" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note156" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">156</a>
</p><p class="justify" id="previous_judgement.defects">
The citing of a Previous Judgement will be faulty​<a class="ref" id="ref157" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note157" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">157</a>
if the judgement applies to an unlike matter, or one not in dispute, or
if it is discreditable, or is of such a kind that previous decisions
either in greater number or of greater appropriateness can be offered by
our adversaries.
</p><p class="justify">
Again, it is a fault, when our adversaries admit a fact, to devote an argument to establishing it as a fact;​<a class="ref" id="ref158" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note158" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">158</a> for it should rather be amplified.
</p><p class="justify" id="amplification.defects">
Again, it is a fault to amplify what one should prove;​<a class="ref" id="ref159" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note159" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">159</a>
for example, if a man should charge another with homicide, and before
he has presented conclusive arguments, should amplify the crime, avowing
that there is nothing more shameful than homicide. The question is, in
fact, not whether the deed is or is not shameful, but whether it was
committed.
</p><p class="justify" id="resume.defects">
The Résumé is defective if it does not include every point in the exact
order in which it has been presented; if it does not come to a
conclusion briefly;​<a class="ref" id="ref160" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note160" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">160</a> and if the summary does not leave something precise and stable, so as to make clear what the Proposition
<a id="p145"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p145&nbsp;</span></a>was, then what has been established by the Reason, by the Proof of the Reason, and by the argument as a whole.
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R30">30</a>
<a class="sec" name="47">47</a>&nbsp;Conclusions, among the Greeks called <span class="translit_Greek">epilogoi</span>,​<a class="ref" id="ref161" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note161" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">161</a>
are tripartite, consisting of the Summing Up, Amplification, and Appeal
to Pity. We can in four places use a Conclusion: in the Direct Opening,
after the Statement of Facts, after the strongest argument, and in the
Conclusion of the speech.
</p><p class="justify" id="summing_up">
The Summing Up​<a class="ref" id="ref162" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note162" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">162</a>
gathers together and recalls the points we have made — briefly, that
the speech may not be repeated in entirety, but that the memory of it
may be refreshed; and we shall reproduce all the points in the order in
which they have been presented, so that the hearer, if he has committed
them to memory, is brought back to what he remembers. Again, we must
take care that the Summary should not be carried back to the
Introduction or the Statement of Facts. Otherwise the speech will appear
to
<a id="p147"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p147&nbsp;</span></a>have been fabricated​<a class="ref" id="ref163" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note163" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">163</a>
and devised with elaborate pains so as to demonstrate the speaker's
skill, advertise his wit, and display his memory. Therefore the Summary
must take its beginning from the Division. Then we must in order and
briefly set forth the points treated in the Proof and Refutation.
</p><p class="justify">
Amplification is the principle of using Commonplaces to stir​<a class="ref" id="ref164" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note164" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">164</a> the hearers. To amplify an accusation it will be most advantageous to draw commonplaces from ten formulae.
</p><p class="justify" id="commonplace_1">
<a class="sec" name="48">48</a>&nbsp;(1)&nbsp;The first commonplace​<a class="ref" id="ref165a" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note165" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">165a</a>
is taken from authority, when we call to mind of what great concern the
matter under discussion has been to the immortal gods, or to our
ancestors, or kings, states, barbarous nations, sages, the Senate; and
again, especially how sanction has been provided in these matters by
laws.
</p><p class="justify" id="commonplace_2">
(2)&nbsp;The second commonplace​<a class="ref" id="ref165b" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note165" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">165b</a>
is used when we consider who are affected by these acts on which our
charge rest; whether all men, which is a most shocking thing; or our
superiors, such as are those
<a id="p149"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p149&nbsp;</span></a>from whom
the commonplace of authority is taken; or our peers, those in the same
situation as we with respect to qualities of character, physical
attributes, and external circumstances;​<a class="ref" id="ref166" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note166" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">166</a> or our inferiors, whom in all these respects we excel.
</p><p class="justify" id="commonplace_3">
(3)&nbsp;By means of the third commonplace​<a class="ref" id="ref167" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note167" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">167</a>
we ask what would happen if the same indulgence should be granted to
all culprits, and show what perils and disadvantages would ensue from
indifference to this crime.
</p><p class="justify" id="commonplace_4">
(4)&nbsp;By means of the fourth commonplace​<a class="ref" id="ref168" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note168" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">168</a>
we show that if we indulge this man, many others will be the more
emboldened to commit crimes — something which the anticipation of a
judicial sentence has hitherto checked.
</p><p class="justify" id="commonplace_5">
(5)&nbsp;By the fifth commonplace​<a class="ref" id="ref169a" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note169" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">169a</a>
we show that if once judgement is pronounced otherwise than as we urge,
there will be nothing which can remedy the harm or correct the jurors'
error. Here it will be in point for us to make a comparison with other
mistakes, so as to show that other mistakes can either be moderated by
time or corrected designedly, but that so far as the present mistake is
concerned, nothing will serve either to alleviate or to amend it.
</p><p class="justify" id="commonplace_6">
<a class="sec" name="49">49</a>&nbsp;(6)&nbsp;By means of the sixth commonplace​<a class="ref" id="ref169b" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note169" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">169b</a>
we show that the act was done with premeditation, and declare that for
an intentional crime there is no excuse, although a rightful plea of
mercy is provided for an unpremeditated act.
</p><p class="justify" id="commonplace_7">
(7)&nbsp;By means of the seventh commonplace​<a class="ref" id="ref169c" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note169" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">169c</a>
we show it is a foul crime, cruel, sacrilegious, and tyrannical; such a
crime as the outraging of women, or one of those crimes that incite
wars and life-and‑death struggles with enemies of the state.
</p><p class="justify" id="p151"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p151&nbsp;</span>
<a id="commonplace_8"></a>
(8)&nbsp;By means of the eighth commonplace​<a class="ref" id="ref170" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note170" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">170</a> we show that it is not a common but a unique crime, base, nefarious, and <span class="whole">unheard‑of</span>, and therefore must be the more promptly and drastically avenged.
</p><p class="justify" id="commonplace_9">
(9)&nbsp;The ninth commonplace consists of comparison​<a class="ref" id="ref171" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note171" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">171</a>
of wrongs, as when we shall say it is a more heinous crime to debauch a
free-born person than to steal a sacred object, because the one is done
from unbridled licentiousness and the other from need.
</p><p class="justify" id="commonplace_10">
(10)&nbsp;By the tenth commonplace we shall examine sharply,
incriminatingly, and precisely, everything that took place in the actual
execution of the deed and all the circumstances that usually attend
such an act, so that by the enumeration of the attendant circumstances
the crime may seem to be taking place and the action to unfold before
our eyes.<a class="ref" id="ref172" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note172" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">172</a>
</p><p class="justify">
<a class="chapter" name="R31">31</a>
<a class="sec" name="50">50</a>&nbsp;We shall stir Pity​<a class="ref" id="ref173" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note173" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">173</a>
in our hearers by recalling the vicissitudes of fortune; by comparing
the prosperity we once enjoyed with our present adversity;​<a class="ref" id="ref174" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note174" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">174</a> by enumerating and explaining the results that will follow for us if we lose the case;​<a class="ref" id="ref175" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note175" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">175</a>
by entreating those whose pity we seek to win, and by submitting
ourselves to their mercy; by revealing what will befall our parents,
children, and other kinsmen through our disgrace,​<a class="ref" id="ref176" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note176" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">176</a> and at the same time
<a id="p153"><span class="pagenum">&nbsp;p153&nbsp;</span></a>showing
that we grieve not because of our own straits but because of their
anxiety and misery; by disclosing the kindness, humanity, and sympathy
we have dispensed to others; by showing that we have ever, or for a long
time, been in adverse circumstances; by deploring our fate or bad
fortune; by showing that our heart will be brave and patient of
adversities. The Appeal to Pity must be brief, for nothing dries more
quickly than a tear.<a class="ref" id="ref177" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note177" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EdNote,WIDTH,180)" onmouseout="nd();">177</a>
</p><p class="justify">
In the present Book I&nbsp;have treated virtually the most obscure
topics in the whole art of rhetoric; therefore this Book must end here.
The remaining rules, so far as seems best, I&nbsp;shall carry over to
Book&nbsp;III. If you study the material that I&nbsp;have presented,
both with and without me, with care equal to the pains I&nbsp;have taken
in assembling it, I,&nbsp;on my part, shall reap the fruit of my labour
in your sharing the knowledge with me, and you, on yours, will praise
my diligence and rejoice in the learning you have acquired. You will
have greater understanding of the precepts of rhetoric, and I&nbsp;shall
be more eager to discharge the rest of my task. But that this will be
so I&nbsp;know quite well, for I&nbsp;know you well. Let me turn at once
to the other rules, so that I&nbsp;may gratify your very proper wish —
and this it gives me the greatest pleasure to do.
</p><hr class="endnotes"><a id="endnotes"></a>
<h2>
The Loeb Editor's Notes:
</h2>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note1" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref1" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">1</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#2" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.ii.2</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note2" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref2" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">2</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#3" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.ii.3</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note3" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref3" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">3</a>
Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#9" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;1.vii.9</a>: <span lang="la" class="Latin">princeps omnium partium</span>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note4" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref4" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">4</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/3*.html#1" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
3.i.1‑viii.15</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note5" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref5" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">5</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#4" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.iii.4‑x.18</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note6" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref6" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">6</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#18" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.x.18‑xv.25</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note7" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref7" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">7</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#25" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.xvi.25‑xvii.27</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note8" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref8" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">8</a>
Implied in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#27" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.xvii.27</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note9" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref9" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">9</a>
The scheme of organization under Proof and Refutation is as follows: (a)&nbsp;The Types of Issue
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#18" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
(1.x.18 to end of Bk.&nbsp;1)</a>; (b)&nbsp;Invention applied to the Types of Issue
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#3" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
(2.ii.3‑xvii.26)</a>;
<a id="p61x"></a>(c)&nbsp;the <span lang="la" class="Latin">tractatio</span> of the arguments devised by Invention
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#27" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
(2.xviii.27‑xxix.46)</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note10" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref10" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">10</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">ἐπιχειρήματα</span>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note11" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref11" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">11</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#27" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xviii.27‑xix.30</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note12" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref12" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">12</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#31" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xx.31‑xxix.46</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note13" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref13" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">13</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#47" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xxx.47‑xxxi.50</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note14" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref14" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">14</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">εἰκός</span>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note15" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref15" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">15</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">αἰτία</span> and <span lang="el" class="Greek">ἀγωγή</span> (see Anon. Seg.&nbsp;182, in <span class="whole">Spengel-Hammer</span> 1[2].384). The <i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i>, ch.&nbsp;7 (1428<span class="small">AB</span>), divides the Probable into natural feelings (<span lang="el" class="Greek">φύσις</span>), habit (<span lang="el" class="Greek">ἔθος</span>), and love of gain (<span lang="el" class="Greek">κέρδος</span>). Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#16" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.v.16&nbsp;ff.</a>, derives all conjecture from consideration of the motive, the person, and the
<a id="p63x"></a>act, distinguishing in motive passion (<span lang="la" class="Latin">impulsio</span>) and premeditation (<span lang="la" class="Latin">ratiocinatio</span>).
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/7B*.html#2.7" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian, 7.2.7&nbsp;ff.</a>, treats conjecture from the point of view of the act and the author (his identity, his intention [<span lang="la" class="Latin">animus</span>]).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note16" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref16" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">16</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#17" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.v.17‑viii.28</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note17" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref17" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">17</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;in Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;2.23 (1399b30&nbsp;ff.), the <span class="translit_Greek">topos</span> of Inducements and Deterrents; and see
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref17" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
note on 2.xxi.34
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note18" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref18" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">18</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#32" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.x.32</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note19" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref19" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">19</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#33" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.x.33</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note20" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref20" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">20</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/7B*.html#2.34" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian, 7.2.34</a>, discusses charges based on the past life of the defendant.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note21" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref21" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">21</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#33" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">2.x.33
</a>
and
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#50" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xvi.50</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note22" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref22" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">22</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#34" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.x.34</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note23" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref23" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">23</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#35" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.xi.35</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note24" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref24" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">24</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#37" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.xi.37</a>. In
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Gellius/14*.html#2.8" target="Gellius" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LPlusE,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
Gellius, 14.2.8</a>, a man against whom the claim of a sum of money was
made pleads that the case concerns a claim before a private judge, and
not a question of morals before the censors.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note25" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref25" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">25</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#24" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.vii.24</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note26" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref26" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">26</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">σημεῖον</span>. Different from the usual <span lang="la" class="Latin">signum</span> of the rhetoricians; see <i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i>, chaps.&nbsp;7 (1428<span class="small">A</span>), 12 (1430<span class="small">B</span>‑1431<span class="small">A</span>), and 14 (1431<span class="small">AB</span>), Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;1.2 (1357<span class="small">AB</span>);
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#48" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;1.xxx.48</a>, and
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/5A*.html#9" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian, 5.9.1&nbsp;ff.</a>; also Kroll, <i>Philologus</i> 89&nbsp;(1934), 334‑341. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/cael.shtml#53" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,190)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>Pro&nbsp;Caelio</i> 22.53</a>: "I&nbsp;might
<a id="p67x"></a>in my speech search every <span class="whole">lurking-place</span>
of suspicion. No motive, no place, no opportunity, no accomplice, no
hope of succeeding in the crime, no hope of escaping detection, no means
at all, no trace of heinous guilt will be found."
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note27" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref27" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">27</a>
For the genitive form <span lang="la" class="Latin">die</span>, see W.&nbsp;M.&nbsp;Lindsay, <i>The Latin Language</i>, Oxford, 1894, pp382‑3; <span class="whole">Neue-Wagener</span>, <i><span lang="de">Formenlehre der latein. Sprache</span></i> (3rd&nbsp;ed., Leipzig, 1902), 1.573‑4; <span class="whole">Kühner-Holzweissig</span>, <i><span lang="de">Ausführliche Grammatik der latein. Sprache</span></i> (2nd&nbsp;ed., Hannover, 1912), 1.405‑6.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note28" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref28" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">28</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;2.5 (1383<span class="small">A</span>): "We feel confidence if .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. there are means of aid — either numerous means or great, or both numerous and great."
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note29" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref29" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">29</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#43" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.xiii.43</a>. <span lang="la" class="Latin">Argumentum</span> is virtually equivalent to the <span lang="el" class="Greek">σημεῖον</span> (fallible sign) of the <i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i> (ch.&nbsp;12, 1430<span class="small">B</span>). The tradition thus antedates Aristotle and persisted against his theory of <span lang="el" class="Greek">σημεῖον</span>, which joined with <span lang="el" class="Greek">εἰκός</span> (the probable proposition) in forming the material of the enthymeme (E.&nbsp;M.&nbsp;Cope, <i>An&nbsp;Introd. to Aristotle's Rhetoric</i>, London and Cambridge, 1867, pp160&nbsp;ff.). The <span lang="la" class="Latin">communes loci</span> dealing with the <span lang="el" class="Greek">περιστάσεις</span> are akin to the Aristotelian kind of <span class="translit_Greek">topoi</span>, but are not specifically Aristotelian. They belong in the Hermagorean system of Issues, but the specific division of <span lang="el" class="Greek">σημεῖα</span> into three periods goes back to <span class="whole">pre-Aristotelian</span> rhetorical theory (<i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i>,&nbsp;<i>l.c.</i>). Neocles (first or second Christian century) in Anon. Seg.&nbsp;153 (<span class="whole">Spengel-Hammer</span> 1[2].379) divides probabilities, signs, and examples
<a id="p71x"></a>into three types according to the same chronological scheme, "as cloud indicating storm, smoke fire, and blood murder." <span lang="el" class="Greek">Σημεῖα</span> and <span lang="el" class="Greek">εἰκότα</span> were used by the Attic orators as early as Antiphon, and by Thucydides; see Friedrich Solmsen, <i><span lang="de">Die Entwicklung der aristotelischen Logik und Rhetorik</span></i> (<span lang="de">Neue Philol. Untersuch.</span>&nbsp;4), Berlin, 1929, pp26‑7, and <i><span class="whole">Antiphon-studien</span></i> (<span lang="de">Neue Philol. Untersuch.</span>&nbsp;8), Berlin, 1931, pp50&nbsp;ff.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note30" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref30" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">30</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Galen, <i>De&nbsp;symptom. different.</i> (ed.&nbsp;Kühn, 7.43), "the symptom (<span lang="el" class="Greek">σύμπτωμα</span>) which some physicians call <span lang="el" class="Greek">ἐπιγέννημα</span> (<span class="whole">after-symptom</span>); Chrysippus, fragm.&nbsp;125, ed.&nbsp;Alfred Gercke, <i><span lang="de">Jahrbücher für Class. Philol.</span></i>, Suppl.&nbsp;14&nbsp;(1885), 738: <span lang="el" class="Greek">κατ’&nbsp;ἐπακολούθημά τι καὶ σύμπτωμα</span>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note31" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref31" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">31</a>
<span lang="la" class="Latin">Defensor</span> is here used as if it meant <span lang="la" class="Latin">reus</span>. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;also the last sentence under Comparison in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#6" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.iv.6</a>, and in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#22" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xiv.22</a>;
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#22.7" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xv.22,&nbsp;end</a>; Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.xxviii.<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#83" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">83
</a>
and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#86" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">86</a>, and
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#88" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xxix.88</a>; and Wenger, <i>Institutes of the Roman Law of Procedure</i>, p91, note&nbsp;44.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note32" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref32" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">32</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">βεβαίωσις</span> in <i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i>, ch.&nbsp;36 (1442<span class="small">B</span>).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note33" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref33" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">33</a>
The treatment of commonplaces goes back to Protagoras and Gorgias (<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/brut.shtml#46" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>Brutus</i>&nbsp;12.46‑7</a>,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/3A*.html#1.12" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian, 3.1.12</a>). On the <span class="translit_Greek">topoi</span> of Aristotle see Cope, <i>An&nbsp;Introd. to Aristotle's Rhetoric</i>, pp124‑131. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#48" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 2.xv.48</a>, who makes a twofold classification of the matters amplified: doubtful and certain;
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/5C*.html#12.15" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian, 5.12.15‑16</a>; and
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note163" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
note on 2.xxx.47
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note34" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref34" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">34</a>
For <span lang="la" class="Latin">a,&nbsp;ab</span> meaning <span class="source">on the side of</span> <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#43" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">2.xxvii.43
</a>
(<span lang="la" class="Latin">ab&nbsp;reo</span>), and see <span class="whole">Schmalz-Hoffmann</span>, p523.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note35" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref35" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">35</a>
The <span class="whole">non-technical</span> means of persuasion (<span lang="el" class="Greek">πίστεις ἄτεχνοι</span>), those that are not inherent in the art, that are not supplied by our own efforts. See Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;1.2 (1355<span class="small">B</span>) and 1.15 (1375<span class="small">A</span>), who lists five: laws, witnesses, contracts, evidence given under torture, and the oath. The theory is <span class="whole">pre-Aristotelian</span>; <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;<i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i>, chaps.&nbsp;7 (1428<span class="small">A</span>) and&nbsp;14 (1431<span class="small">B</span>)&nbsp;ff., on the supplementary proofs (<span lang="el" class="Greek">ἐπίθετοι πίστεις</span>): the speaker's own opinion, witnesses, admissions under torture, and oaths. The employment of these proofs long antedated
<a id="p75x"></a>argumentation in the law-courts; when argumentation
came into being its first function was to interpret these "already
existing" proofs.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note36" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref36" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">36</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">μάρτυρες</span>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note37" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref37" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">37</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">βάσανοι</span>. To be distinguished from <span lang="la" class="Latin">iudicii quaestio</span>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#26" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
(1.xvi.26)</a>. Torture was administered under the direction of the
court, but not in the presence of the jury. The torture of free men was
not legal.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note38" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref38" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">38</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#3" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.ii.3‑v.8</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note39" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref39" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">39</a>
For the same sentiment <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;Anon. Seg.&nbsp;189, in <span class="whole">Spengel-Hammer</span> 1(2).386; Hermogenes, <i>De&nbsp;Stat.</i>&nbsp;3 (ed.&nbsp;Rabe, pp45‑6); also Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;1.15 (1376<span class="small">A</span>): The speaker who
<a id="p79x"></a>lacks witnesses on his side will argue "that
probabilities cannot be bribed to mislead the court, and are never
convicted of false witness."
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note40" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref40" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">40</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">ἀληθινὰ πράγματα</span> (Longinus, in <span class="whole">Spengel-Hammer</span> 1[2].195.18), as distinguished from school exercises; <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/4C*.html#58" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">4.xliv.58</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note41" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref41" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">41</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#125" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 2.xliii.125</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note42" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref42" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">42</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">ἀκριωοδίκαιος</span>. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/caecina.shtml#65" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>Pro&nbsp;Caecina</i> 23.65</a>:
[People who feel that they have equity on their side say that]
"a&nbsp;pettifogger follows the letter; a&nbsp;good juror defends the
will and intention of the framer."
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note43" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref43" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">43</a>
The departments of Law, considered in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#19" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xiii.19‑20
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note44" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref44" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">44</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">κοινὸν δίκαιον</span>, the "unwritten statutes of heaven that stand fast for ever" (<span lang="el" class="Greek">ἄγραπτα κἀσφαλῆ θεῶν νόμιμα</span>) of Sophocles, <i>Antig.</i>&nbsp;454‑5. (Sophocles apparently echoes an argument used by Pericles in an actual case; see Lysias, <i>Adv.&nbsp;Andoc.</i>&nbsp;10). <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;1.10 (1368<span class="small">B</span>): "By universal law I&nbsp;mean all the unwritten principles that are supposed to be acknowledged by all mankind"; 1.13 (1373<span class="small">B</span>): "For indeed there is, as all men to some extent divine, a natural and universal
<a id="p83x"></a>notion of right and wrong, binding on them even if they have no mutual intercourse or covenant"; 1.15 (1375<span class="small">A</span>):
"It is clear that if the written law is adverse to our case, he [the
speaker] must appeal to the universal law, and to the principles of
equity as representing a higher order of justice. [He must say] that
[the judge's obligation to decide] 'according to my best judgement'
means that the judge will not be guided simply and solely by the letter
of the statute" (tr.&nbsp;Lane Cooper); Cope, <i>An&nbsp;Introd. to Aristotle's Rhetoric</i>, pp239‑44. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;also the Stoic Chrysippus in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diogenes_Laertius/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/7/Zeno*.html#88" target="Diogenes_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Diogenes Laertius 7.88</a>: "The common law, the right reason pervading all things;" and
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cicero/de_Officiis/3B*.html#69" target="Cicero_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Offic.</i>&nbsp;3.17.69</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note45" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref45" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">45</a>
See
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#19" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xiii.19‑20</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note46" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref46" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">46</a>
<span lang="la" class="Latin">Honesta res</span> and <span lang="la" class="Latin">rectum</span> are defined in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/3*.html#3" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
3.ii.3
</a>
below, the departments of Law in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#19" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xiii.19‑20
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note47" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref47" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">47</a>
Isocrates, <i>Panath.</i>&nbsp;26‑28<!-- ISOCRATES -->, on the <span class="whole">so‑called</span>
eristic discussions "which our young men take greater pleasure in than
they ought," holds them unsuitable for grown men. In Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/oratore2.shtml#111" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Oratore</i> 2.26.111</a>, Antonius blames the rhetoricians for not knowing ambiguities as well as the dialecticians understood them (see also
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/orator.shtml#115" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>Orator</i>&nbsp;32.115</a>), whereas Dionysius Halic., <i>De&nbsp;Composit. Verb.</i>,
ch.&nbsp;4, says that treatises such as those of Chrysippus dealing,
among others, with ambiguous propositions offer no benefit to civil
oratory, at least with respect to charm and beauty of style. The
contempt for
<a id="p87x"></a>dialectic is Epicurean; <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diogenes_Laertius/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/10/Epicurus*.html#31" target="Diogenes_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">Diogenes Laertius&nbsp;10.31</a>: "Dialectic the Epicureans reject as superfluous"; Cicero,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cicero/de_Finibus/1*.html#22" target="Cicero_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Fin.</i>&nbsp;1.7.22</a>, on Epicurus: "He does not show how to detect ambiguities";
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cicero/de_Finibus/2*.html#18" target="Cicero_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>ibid.</i>, 2.6.18</a>. Chrysippus maintained that every word is by nature ambiguous, while Diodorus Cronus asserted that no word is ambiguous
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Gellius/11*.html#12" target="Gellius_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EPlusL,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
(Gellius&nbsp;11.12)</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note48" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref48" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">48</a>
Our author here resumes the controversy between Saturninus and Caepio treated in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#21" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.xii.21
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note49" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref49" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">49</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#19" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xiii.19‑20
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note50" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref50" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">50</a>
For the meaning of these terms see Moriz Wlassak, <i>Sav. Zeitschr.</i>&nbsp;42&nbsp;(1921), 408&nbsp;ff., and <i>Sitzungsber. Akad. der Wissensch. in Wien (Philos.-hist. Kl.)</i> 202,&nbsp;3&nbsp;(1924), 168, note&nbsp;37; Wenger, <i>Institutes of the Roman Law of Civil Procedure</i>, p259, note&nbsp;10, and p416. All enforceable rights are exhausted by the triad: <span lang="la" class="Latin">actio</span> refers to the <span lang="la" class="Latin">legis actio</span>, <span lang="la" class="Latin">petitio</span> comprehends obligations without regard to the form of the legal procedure, and <span lang="la" class="Latin">persecutio</span> refers probably to the rights in general embraced under prosecution, including such praetorian remedies outside
<a id="p89x"></a>an ordinary lawsuit as <span lang="la" class="Latin">interdicta</span> (see Greenidge, <i>The Legal Procedure of Cicero's Time</i>, pp75‑8, Wenger, pp245&nbsp;ff.) and <span lang="la" class="Latin">in integrum restitutiones</span> (see Wenger, pp244‑5).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note51" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref51" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">51</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#19" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xiii.19‑20
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note52" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref52" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">52</a>
Arising from a gap in the law, which is filled by a process of deduction.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note53" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref53" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">53</a>
See
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#24" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.xiv.24
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note54" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref54" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">54</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#160" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.liii.160&nbsp;ff.
</a>
Johannes Stroux ("<span lang="la">Summum ius summa iniuria</span>," in <i>Festschr. <span class="whole">Speiser-Sarasin</span></i>, Leipzig, 1926, and "<span lang="de">Griechische Einflüsse auf die Entwickl. der röm. Rechtswissensch. gegen Ende der republikan. Zeit</span>," in <i><span lang="it">Atti del Congr. Internaz. di diritto Rom.</span></i> (Roma), Pavia, 1934, 1.111‑132; now both printed as <i><span lang="de">Röm. Rechtswissensch. und Rhetorik</span></i>,
Potsdam, 1949) argues that rhetorical theory had a substantial
influence on Roman jurisprudence (the sequence being from Greek
philosophy to Greek rhetoric, thence to Roman rhetoric, finally to Roman
juristic theory and practice), but many students of Roman Law believe
that, though useful for pleading, it was not of real significance for
directing judicial decisions. Thus the <span lang="la" class="Latin">status</span>
system as a whole seems to have had no influence upon the jurists, with
the possible exception of the doctrines of Letter and Spirit and of
Definition (<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#19" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">1.xi.19</a>,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#13" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.ix.13‑x.14</a>;
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#21" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.xii.21</a>,
<a id="p91x"></a><a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#17" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">2.xii.17</a>); <i>cf.</i>,&nbsp;for example,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/7D*.html#6" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian, 7.6.1</a>. The rhetorician's method of interpretation is
rationalistic and schematic, the jurist's is casuistic. See
A.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Schiller, <i>Virginia Law Rev.</i> 17&nbsp;(1941), 733‑768, esp.&nbsp;750&nbsp;ff.; Fritz Schulz, <i>Principles of Roman Law</i>, Oxford, 1936, pp129&nbsp;ff., and <i>History of Roman Legal Science</i>, Oxford, 1946, pp53&nbsp;ff., 71&nbsp;ff.; J.&nbsp;Himmelschein, "<span lang="de">Studien zu der antiken</span> <span lang="la">Hermeneutica iuris</span>, in <i><span lang="la">Symbolae Friburgens. in honorem Ottonis Lenel</span></i>, Leipzig, 1935, pp373‑424; Artur Steinwenter, "<span lang="de">Rhetorik und römischer Zivilprozess</span>," <i>Sav. Zeitschr.</i> 67&nbsp;(1947), 69‑120; H.&nbsp;F.&nbsp;Jolowicz, <i>Historical Introduction to the Study of Roman Law</i>, 2nd&nbsp;ed., Cambridge, 1952, pp576&nbsp;f. Note, too, that such sources of Law as the Edict and the <span lang="la" class="Latin">responsa prudentium</span>
are missing from our author's list; see Jolowicz, ch.&nbsp;5. On the
philosophical (Stoic) background of our author's theory of Law see also
Kroll, <i>Philologus</i>&nbsp;90&nbsp;(1935), 211‑215.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note55" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref55" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">55</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">φύσις</span>. In the Roman conception <span lang="la" class="Latin">ius civile</span> is the Law which each people forms for itself and is peculiar to its state; the <span lang="la" class="Latin">ius gentium</span>
(not the modern law of nations), on the other hand, is the Law common
to all peoples. The latter became identified with Natural Law, which was
originally a Greek concept. See
<a href="https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/Responsa/gai1.htm#1" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,190)" onmouseout="nd();">
Gaius, <i>Inst.</i>&nbsp;1.1</a>, and Elemér Balogh, in <i>Studi in onore di Pietro Bonfante</i> (Milan, 1930), 4.677‑9. Alfred Pernice, <i>Sav. Zeitschr.</i> 22&nbsp;(1901), 62‑3, denying the juristic value of these "sources of Law," points out that Nature cannot be a source of <i>positive</i> Law. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#67" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.xxii.67</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note56" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref56" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">56</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">νόμος</span>. The definition, as against the others in this section, is Roman; <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://droitromain.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/Responsa/gai1.htm#3" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,190)" onmouseout="nd();">Gaius, <i>Inst.</i>&nbsp;1.3</a>:
"A&nbsp;statute is a command and ordinance of the people." But our
author's definition seems too inclusive; for example, not every action
of a Popular Assembly made Law. On <span lang="la" class="Latin">sanctio</span> (consecration) see Mommsen, p882, and p901, note&nbsp;5.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note57" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref57" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">57</a>
<a href="https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lsante05/LegesXII/leg_ta01.html" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>Twelve Tables</i>&nbsp;1.1</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note58" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref58" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">58</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">συνήθεια</span>. Students of Roman jurisprudence deny that the concept of customary law held by the rhetoricians (to
<a id="p93x"></a>whom it was useful, for tradition is a valid source for
argumentation) was as such employed by the jurists of this period. See
Pernice, <i>Sav. Zeitschr.</i> 22&nbsp;(1901), 59&nbsp;ff.; Artur Steinwenter, in <i><span lang="it">Studi in onore di Pietro Bonfante</span></i>, 2.421‑40; A.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Schiller, <i>Virginia Law Rev.</i> 24&nbsp;(1938), 268‑82; Fritz Schulz, <i>History of Roman Legal Science</i>, p74; C.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;Westrup, <i>Introd. to Early Roman Law</i> <span class="small">III</span>,&nbsp;(Copenhagen and London, 1939), 127&nbsp;ff.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note59" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref59" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">59</a>
One of only a&nbsp;few situations in Roman private law described as of customary origin; see Schiller, <i>Virg. Law Rev.</i>&nbsp;24.275.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note60" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref60" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">60</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">κεκριμένον</span>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note61" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref61" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">61</a>
M.&nbsp;Livius Drusus was <span lang="la" class="Latin"> praetor urbanus</span> <i>c.</i>&nbsp;115&nbsp;<span class="small">B.C.</span>, Sextus Julius Caesar in&nbsp;123&nbsp;<span class="small">B.C.</span>
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note62" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref62" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">62</a>
C.&nbsp;Caelius (Caldus? See P.&nbsp;F.&nbsp;Girard, <i>Mélanges de droit romain</i> [Paris, 1923] 2.398, note&nbsp;2), before&nbsp;103&nbsp;<span class="small">B.C.</span> The <span lang="la" class="Latin">mimi</span> specialised in broad and coarse humour (<span lang="la" class="Latin">iocus illiberalis</span>). Lucilius used licence in attacking other men (<i>e.g.</i>,&nbsp;the poets Accius and Pacuvius), but resented attacks upon himself.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note63" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref63" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">63</a>
See R.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;Smith, "The Law of Libel at Rome," <i>Class. Quart.</i>&nbsp;44&nbsp;(1951), 171‑2<!--</A>JOURNAL:CQ:44 under copyright thru at least 2021-->.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note64" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref64" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">64</a>
Publius Mucius Scaevola, probably in 136&nbsp;<span class="small">B.C.</span> See
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#24" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.xiv.24
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note65" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref65" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">65</a>
Corresponds to <span lang="el" class="Greek">καλὸν καὶ δίκαιον</span>, <span lang="el" class="Greek">ἐπιεικές</span>, <span lang="el" class="Greek">ἴσον</span>, yet the Roman term emphasizes the social point of view, implying more than "fairness." The <span lang="la" class="Latin">bonum</span> is connected with <span lang="la" class="Latin">bona fides</span>. See Fritz Pringsheim, "<span lang="la">Bonum et Aequum</span>," <i>Sav. Zeitschr.</i> 52&nbsp;(1932), 78‑155; Westrup, <i>op.&nbsp;cit.</i>, <span class="small">III</span>,&nbsp;1.21&nbsp;ff.
The definition is philosophical, and Greek in origin, but the
illustration is from Roman law. According to Stroux, "Summum ius summa
iniuria," the Aristotelian doctrine of equity came to the Roman Forum
through the Peripatetic and Academic writers, and thence to the <span lang="la" class="Latin">interpretatio iuris</span>, but most students deny such an influence upon the Roman
<a id="p95x"></a>jurists, or minimize it. See Ernst Levy, <i>Sav. Zeitschr.</i> 48&nbsp;(1928), 668‑78; Schiller, <i>Virg. Law Rev.</i> 27.753&nbsp;ff.; Schulz, <i>History of Roman Legal Science</i>, pp74&nbsp;f.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note66" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref66" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">66</a>
This is the earliest text expressly mentioning substitution in Roman procedure. On procedural representation see Wenger, <i>Institutes of the Roman Law of Civil Procedure</i>, pp88&nbsp;ff.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note67" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref67" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">67</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">συνάλλαγμα</span>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note68" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref68" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">68</a>
<a href="https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lsante05/LegesXII/leg_ta01.html" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>Twelve Tables</i>&nbsp;1.6‑9</a>. The Comitium adjoined the Forum on
the northwest; although the two areas were not separated by a natural
line, each kept its separate identity until the middle of the second
century&nbsp;<span class="small">B.C.</span>
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note69" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref69" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">69</a>
Our author now turns to the Assumptive Juridical Issue. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#24" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">1.xiv.24 and 1.xv.25
</a>
above, and Cicero's fuller, and generally clearer, treatment in
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#72" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.xxiv.72&nbsp;ff.</a>; also the figure Comparison (<span lang="la" class="Latin">similitudo</span>),
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/4C*.html#59" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
4.xlv.59
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note70" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref70" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">70</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;the definition of Advantage,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/3*.html#3" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
3.ii.3
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note71" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref71" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">71</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#25" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">1.xv.25
</a>
above, and
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#78" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.xxvi.78&nbsp;ff.
</a>
(<span lang="la" class="Latin">relatio criminis</span>).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note72" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref72" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">72</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#80" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.xxvii.80&nbsp;f.</a>
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note73" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref73" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">73</a>
The problem is that exploited in tragedy, concerning the right to take justice into one's own hands.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note74" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref74" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">74</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#84" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.xxviii.84&nbsp;f.</a>
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note75" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref75" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">75</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#94" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;2.xxxi.94</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note76" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref76" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">76</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#98" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 2.xxii.98&nbsp;ff.</a>
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note77" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref77" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">77</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#95" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 2.xxxi.95</a>, and <i>Rhet. ad Alex.</i>, ch.&nbsp;4 (1427<span class="small">A</span>).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note78" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref78" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">78</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Aristotle, <i>Eth. Nic.</i>&nbsp;3.3 (1111&nbsp;<span class="small">A</span>24): "For it is perhaps a mistake to say that acts committed through anger or desire are involuntary."
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note79" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref79" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">79</a>
The <i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i>, ch.&nbsp;7 (1429<span class="small">A</span>), admits such a defence as a last resort.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note80" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref80" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">80</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#96" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 2.xxxi.96</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note81" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref81" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">81</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#101" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 2.xxxiii.101&nbsp;f.</a>
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note82" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref82" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">82</a>
For the commonplaces on pity see also
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#26" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xvii.26
</a>
and especially
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#50" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xxxi.50
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note83" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref83" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">83</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#106" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 2.xxxv.106</a>, and
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/lig.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,2,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>Pro&nbsp;Ligario</i></a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note84" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref84" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">84</a>
For <span lang="la" class="Latin">mansuetus et misericors</span> <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;Sallust, <i>Cat.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.html#54.2" target="Sallust_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EPlusL,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">54.2
</a>
(on Caesar),
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.html#52.11" target="Sallust_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EPlusL,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
52.11
</a>
and
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.html#52.27" target="Sallust_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EPlusL,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
52.27
</a>
(Cato), and
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.html#34" target="Sallust_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EPlusL,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
34.1
</a>
(Q.&nbsp;Marcius); Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/murena.shtml#90" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>Pro&nbsp;Murena</i> 41.90</a>,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/sulla.shtml#93" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Cicero\'s pro Sulla'+Lat2+LatSearch+'uuu</SPAN>.<BR>')" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>Pro&nbsp;Sulla</i>&nbsp;33.93</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note85" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref85" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">85</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#24" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.xiv.24</a>. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#105" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 2.xxxiv.105</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note86" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref86" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">86</a>
Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#86" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 2.xxix.86‑xxx.94</a>, considers also the situation (<span lang="la" class="Latin">remotio rei</span>) in which the defendant denies that the act he is charged with concerned him or his duty. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;also the Exculpation,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#23" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xvi.23
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note87" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref87" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">87</a>
See the definition of Advantage,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/3*.html#3" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
3.ii.3
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note88" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref88" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">88</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#23" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xvi.23
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note89" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref89" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">89</a>
<span lang="la" class="Latin">Tractatio</span> and <span lang="la" class="Latin">inventio</span> supplement each other; Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/oratore2.shtml#176" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Oratore</i> 2.41.176</a>: "We now see that it is by no means enough to <i>find</i> what to say, unless you are able to <i>handle</i> it (<span lang="la" class="Latin">id inventum tractare</span>) skilfully once found;" <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;also <i>ibid.</i>,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/oratore2.shtml#120" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.27.120</a>. The tradition is Isocratean; <i>Paneg.</i>&nbsp;9: "For the deeds of the past are a heritage common to us all, but the ability to make full use (=&nbsp;<span lang="el" class="Greek">χρῆσις</span>)
of them at the proper time, in each instance to form the right
conceptions about them, and to set these forth in a finished style, is
the special gift of them that know." <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#2" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">1.ii.2</a>,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#2" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.ii.2</a>,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/3*.html#7" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
3.iv.7</a>,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/3*.html#11" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
3.vi.11</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="a0 justify">
<a class="note" id="note90" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref90" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">90</a>
Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/oratore1.shtml#67" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xxxvii.67</a>, divides the deductive argument (<span lang="la" class="Latin">argumentatio per ratiocinationem</span>) into <span lang="la" class="Latin">propositio</span>, <span lang="la" class="Latin">propositionis approbatio</span>, <span lang="la" class="Latin">assumptio</span>, <span lang="la" class="Latin">assumptionis approbatio</span>, and <span lang="la" class="Latin">complexio</span>.
</p><p class="i1 b0 a0 justify">
While Aristotle in forming arguments constructs the enthymeme in close analogy with the logical syllogism (<i>e.g.</i>, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;1.2, 1356<span class="small">B</span>),
our author, with the practical speaker in mind in this meagre
treatment, shows little interest in the syllogistic form. The
epicheireme is more complicated than
<a id="p107x"></a>the enthymeme (of which it is a later name). Aristotle's enthymeme (and, later, also Quintilian's [epicheireme]; see
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/5D*.html#14.6" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
5.14.6</a>) comprised two premises and conclusion; the epicheireme
normally comprised four premises. Aristotle took the premises for
granted; the later rhetoricians thought it necessary to prove each. The
epicheireme may have developed under Stoic influence. Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/oratore1.shtml#61" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xxxv.61</a>, makes it clear that the
quinquepartite epicheireme grew out of Aristotle's syllogism;
Theophrastus, following observations of Isocrates, may have been the
first to introduce it into rhetoric. Cicero's syllogistic form (<span lang="la" class="Latin">ratiocinatio</span>) is logical; he treats it on a par with Socratic induction. See
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/oratore1.shtml#57" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xxxiv.57&nbsp;ff.</a>; Quintilian,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/5B*.html#10" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
5.10.1&nbsp;ff.
</a>
and
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/5D*.html#14.5" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
5.14.5&nbsp;ff.</a>; Wilhelm Kroll, <i><span lang="de">Das Epicheirema</span></i>, in <i><span lang="de">Sitzungsber. Akad. der Wissensch. in Wien</span> (<span class="whole">Philos-hist</span>.&nbsp;Kl.)</i>, 216.2&nbsp;(1936); Friedrich Solmsen, <i>Amer. Journ. Philol.</i>&nbsp;62&nbsp;(1941), 39&nbsp;ff.<!--</A>JOURNAL:AJP:62-->, 169&nbsp;ff.<!--</A>JOURNAL:AJP:62--> It is doubtful whether the epicheireme as here described was very widely used in actual oratory.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note91" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref91" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">91</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">πρότασις</span>, <span lang="el" class="Greek">λῆμμα</span>, hereafter in Book&nbsp;2 called <span lang="la" class="Latin">expositio</span> by our author.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note92" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref92" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">92</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/oratore1.shtml#68" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xxxviii.68</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note93" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref93" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">93</a>
The Proposition. Here begins a <span lang="la" class="Latin">progymnasma</span> (<span lang="el" class="Greek">σύγκρισις</span> of persons). The theme was first taken up in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#18" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.xi.18
</a>
above. Thiele, <i>Hermagoras</i>, pp159‑163, conjectures that the source of both theme (originally a <span lang="el" class="Greek">ὅπλων κρίσις</span> or an <span lang="el" class="Greek">Αἴας</span> of tragedy) and treatment by five-fold epicheireme is Hermagoras. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/4B*.html#2.13" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">Quintilian, 4.2.13</a>;
Ulysses replies that he did not do the deed, and had no quarrel with
Ajax, and that their conflict was concerned only with renown.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note94" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref94" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">94</a>
The Reason.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note95" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref95" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">95</a>
Ulysses hated Palamedes because he had exposed Ulysses' deceit in feigning madness so as to avoid joining the
<a id="p109x"></a>Greek expedition to Troy, and because Ulysses envied
his fame for wisdom. According to another tradition this hatred arose
from the severe reproof Palamedes dealt out to Ulysses for returning <span class="whole">empty-handed</span>
from a foraging expedition. The stories of the vengeance also differ.
Ulysses and Diomedes induced him to descend into a well in order to find
alleged treasure, and then stoned him; or they drowned him while he was
fishing; or with Agamemnon they bribed a servant of Palamedes to
conceal under Palamedes' bed a forged letter from Priam offering a bribe
of gold, accused Palamedes of treachery, and when the letter (or gold)
was discovered, caused him to be stoned by the Greeks.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note96" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref96" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">96</a>
The Proof of the Reason.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note97" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref97" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">97</a>
The Embellishment.
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/5D*.html#14.6" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian,&nbsp;5.14.6</a>, knows of the <span lang="la" class="Latin">exornatio</span> as a part of the epicheireme.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note98" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref98" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">98</a>
The Résumé.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note99" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref99" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">99</a>
Arrangement accommodated to circumstance, as in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/3*.html#17" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
3.ix.17
</a>
below. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#70" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xxxix.70&nbsp;ff.</a>
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note100" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref100" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">100</a>
Our author omitted to use a transition here. Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#78" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();"><i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlii.78&nbsp;ff.</a>, rightly considers the defective arguments under Refutation (<span lang="la" class="Latin">reprehensio</span>).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note101" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref101" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">101</a>
<span lang="la" class="Latin">Reprehensio</span> =&nbsp;<span lang="el" class="Greek">λύσις</span>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note102" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref102" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">102</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#79" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlii.79</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note103" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref103" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">103</a>
The fallacy of False Generalization. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#80" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xliii.80</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note104" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref104" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">104</a>
In
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#80" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xliii.80</a>, this observation is assigned
to the speech delivered by C.&nbsp;Scribonius Curio (first of the three
orators of that name, praetor in&nbsp;121&nbsp;<span class="small">B.C.</span>) in defence of Servius Fulvius in a prosecution for incest. According to Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/brut.shtml#132" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>Brutus</i> 32.122</a>, the speech was once esteemed a masterpiece.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note105" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref105" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">105</a>
The fallacy of Incomplete Disjunction. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#84" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlv.84</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note106" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref106" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">106</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#85" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlv.85</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note107" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref107" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">107</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Cato in
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/livy/liv.34.shtml#4" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,190)" onmouseout="nd();">
Livy, 34.4.1&nbsp;ff.</a>: "Often have you heard me complain
.&nbsp;.&nbsp;. that the state is suffering from the two opposing vices,
luxury and greed, which have been the curse and destruction of every
great empire;"
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/sex.rosc.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Cicero\'s pro Roscio Amerino'+Lat2+LatSearch+'creatur</SPAN>',WIDTH,200)" onmouseout="nd();">
Cicero, <i>Pro S.&nbsp;Rosc.&nbsp;Am.</i> 27.75</a>: "The city creates
luxury; from luxury greed inevitably springs, and from greed bursts
forth audacity, the source of every crime and wrong;"
<a href="https://archive.org/stream/rhetoresgraeci00spen#page/294/mode/2up/" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,2,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
Longinus, <i>De&nbsp;Sublim.</i>&nbsp;44.6</a>:<a class="correction" onmouseover="return Ebox(CarelessLoeb50+'46.6</SPAN>',WIDTH,216)" onmouseout="nd();">º</a> "For the love of money .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. and the love of pleasure enslave us;" Isocrates, <i>Antid.</i>&nbsp;217<!-- ISOCRATES -->: "Well then, I&nbsp;say that every man does everything he does for the sake of pleasure or gain or glory;" Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;1.10 (1369<span class="small">A</span>):
<a id="p117x"></a>"Thus every act of men is necessarily done from one or
other of seven causes: chance, nature, compulsion, habit, calculation,
passion, or desire."
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note108" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref108" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">108</a>
Aristotle, <i>Polit.</i>&nbsp;2.9 (1271<span class="small">A</span>), declares greed and ambition to be the commonest motives of crime; <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;also Timon the Misanthrope in Stobaeus, 3.10.53<!--</A>STOBAEUS3-->: "The components of evil are greed and the love of glory"; and
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/serm1.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Horace\'s Satires, Book 1'+Lat2+LatSearch+'quemvis</SPAN>',WIDTH,185)" onmouseout="nd();">
Hor.&nbsp;<i>Serm.</i>&nbsp;1.4.25‑6</a>: "Take anyone at all from amid a crowd — he is suffering from either greed or some wretched ambition."
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note109" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref109" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">109</a>
The sentiment is Epicurean; <i>cf.</i>,&nbsp;for example, Lucretius&nbsp;<a href="https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lsante01/Lucretius/luc_rer1.html" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Book 1<BR>of the <I>de Natura Rerum</I>'+Lat2+LatSearch+'vereor</SPAN>',WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">1.80&nbsp;ff.</a>,
<a href="https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/Chronologia/Lsante01/Lucretius/luc_rer3.html" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Book 3<BR>of the <I>de Natura Rerum</I>'+Lat2+LatSearch+'cogunt</SPAN>',WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
3.59&nbsp;ff.</a>
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note110" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref110" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">110</a>
In Theon&nbsp;5 (Spengel 2.99 and 105) and in Stobaeus, 3.10.37<!--</A>STOBAEUS3-->, Bion of Borysthenes (first half 3rd&nbsp;century <span class="small">B.C.</span>) is quoted as saying that avarice is mother city (<span lang="el" class="Greek">μητρόπολις</span>) of all evil; in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diogenes_Laertius/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/6/Diogenes*.html#love_of_money" target="princeps" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Diogenes Laertius, 6.50</a>, the saying is attributed to Diogenes the Cynic (fourth century&nbsp;<span class="small">B.C.</span>). This sentiment was popular in the rhetorical schools and philosophical diatribes. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.html#10.3" target="Sallust_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EPlusL,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">Sallust,<!-- keep space: --> </a><a id="p119x"></a><a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.html#10.3" target="Sallust_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,EPlusL,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();"><i>Cat.</i>&nbsp;10</a>: "These [the lust for money and the lust for power] were, I&nbsp;might say, the source (<span lang="la" class="Latin">materies</span>) of all evils"; Calpurnius Flaccus&nbsp;8<!--</A>CALPURNIUS FLACCUS-->: "A&nbsp;man long happy is substance (<span lang="la" class="Latin">materia</span>) for all disasters," and see also Otto,&nbsp;<i>s.v.</i>&nbsp;"avaritia"&nbsp;5, p51.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note111" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref111" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">111</a>
Medea's nurse in the Prologue of Ennius' <i>Medea Exul</i>, which was a reproduction of Euripides' <i>Medea</i>. Ennius here observed the sequence of causes more carefully than Euripides had done; see <i>Schol. in&nbsp;Eurip., Med.</i>&nbsp;1.1&nbsp;ff., ed.&nbsp;Ed.&nbsp;Schwartz, 2.140&nbsp;ff. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#91" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlix.91</a>;
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/5B*.html#10.83" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian, 5.10.83</a>; Ribbeck, 1.49‑50.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note112" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref112" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">112</a>
Its faultiness is <span class="whole">self-evident</span>. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Plato, <i>Sophist</i>&nbsp;252<span class="small">C</span>:
"They do not need others to refute them, but, as the saying goes, they
have an enemy and adversary who dwells in the same house with them."
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note113" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref113" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">113</a>
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/plautus/trinummus.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Plautus\' <I>Trinummus</I>'+Lat2+LatSearch+'nam ego</SPAN>',WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>Trinummus</i>&nbsp;23‑6</a>. A&nbsp;proper translation would be: "For instance, today." <span lang="la" class="Latin">Nam</span>,
here appearing in colloquial speech, introduces a particular instance
of a general statement; it is transitional rather than confirmatory, and
so the charge that Megaronides uses a false syllogism is unjust.
Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#95" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.l.95</a>, is guilty of the same misunderstanding. See W.&nbsp;M.&nbsp;Lindsay, <i>Syntax of Plautus</i>, Oxford, 1907, p100.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note114" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref114" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">114</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;2.24 (1401<span class="small">B</span>), illustrating, among the sham enthymemes, the <span class="translit_Greek">topos</span>
from a sign (a&nbsp;single instance used to prove the rule): "For
example, one might say that lovers are of service to their countries,
for it was the love of Harmodius and Aristogeiton which brought about
the downfall of the tyrant Hipparchus."
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note115" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref115" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">115</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;R.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;Emerson in "The American Scholar":
"Inaction is cowardice, but there can be no scholar without the heroic
mind." For other echoes of the opposition to philosophy and art see
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#43" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xxvii.43
</a>
and
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/4B*.html#43" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
4.xxxii.43</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note116" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref116" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">116</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;the like portrayal of Fortune in <i><span lang="la">Cebetis Tabula</span></i> (probably first Christian century), ch.&nbsp;7 (ed.&nbsp;Praechter, p6), and
<a href="https://shakespeare.mit.edu/henryv/henryv.3.6.html" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Shakespeare\'s play<BR>(opens in another window);<BR>search for '+SearchF+'giddy'+CloseF+'',WIDTH,185)" onmouseout="nd();">
Shakespeare, <i>Henry&nbsp;V</i>, 3.6.26&nbsp;ff.</a>; also Otto, <i>s.v.</i>&nbsp;"fortuna"&nbsp;1, p142.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note117" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref117" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">117</a>
We do not know to which play this fragment (from a prologue, perhaps) is to be assigned. Ribbeck, 1.145, conjectures <i>Chryses</i>; Marx, and Warmington, 2.319, <i>Dulorestes</i>; L.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Post, <i>Hermiona</i>. For the genitive form <span lang="la" class="Latin">re</span> (last verse) see
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note27" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">p68, note&nbsp;<i>a</i></a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note118" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref118" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">118</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#95" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.l.95</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note119" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref119" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">119</a>
Very like the type of fallacy in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#36" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xxiii.36
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note120" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref120" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">120</a>
An Introduction similarly defective is called banal in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#11" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.vii.11
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note121" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref121" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">121</a>
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#36" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xxiii.36
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note122" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref122" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">122</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">δίλημμα</span>, <span lang="el" class="Greek">διλήμματον</span>. <span lang="la" class="Latin">Complexio</span> in
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#45" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xxix.45</a>, and in
<a href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Serv.+A.+2.675" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
Servius on Virgil, <i>Aen.</i>&nbsp;2.675</a>. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;in Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;2.23 (1399<span class="small">A</span>), No.&nbsp;14 of the 28&nbsp;lines of argument from which to draw enthymemes, the <span class="translit_Greek">topos</span> of criss-cross consequences; Hermogenes, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 4.6 (ed.&nbsp;Rabe, pp192‑4); and also the figure Division,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/4C*.html#52" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
4.xl.52
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note123" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref123" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">123</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#83" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlv.83</a>; he uses an example which our author gives in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#42" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xxvi.42
</a>
to illustrate the vice of inconsistency.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="a0 justify">
<a class="note" id="note124" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref124" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">124</a>
The verses in this section have been referred either to a Greek school of rhetoric where exercises were set on the <i>Cresphontes</i> of Euripides or to Ennius' <i>Cresphontes</i>; see Marx, <i>Proleg.</i>, p132, and Ribbeck, 1.33, but also Johannes Tolkiehn, <i><span lang="de">Berl. philol. Wochenschr.</span></i>
37&nbsp;(1917), 828‑89, who believes that the first four verses belong
to the Ennian play. Our author seems here to have forgotten what
precisely constitutes Proof of the Reason; <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;his definition in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#28" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xviii.28
</a>
above, and the illustration in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#29" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xix.29</a>.
</p><p class="i1 b0 a0 justify">
In the event that the conditions here mirrored are Roman, the daughter must have remained in the <span lang="la" class="Latin">potestas</span>&nbsp;of
her father if he divorced her from her husband without her consent.
This, then, would be an early reference to marriage without <span lang="la" class="Latin">manus</span>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note125" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref125" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">125</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#81" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xliii.81</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note126" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref126" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">126</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Aristotle's examples of the infallible kind of sign in <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;1.2 (1357<span class="small">B</span>): "He is sick, for he has a fever," and "She has had a child, for she has milk"; also <i>Anal.&nbsp;Pr.</i> 2.27&nbsp;(70<span class="small">A</span>).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note127" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref127" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">127</a>
This is the "common" argument; <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#90" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlviii.90</a>, and
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/5D*.html#13.29" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian, 5.13.29</a>. Faults such as those treated from here on are described briefly by Quintilian in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/5D*.html#13.34" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
5.13.34&nbsp;f.</a>
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note128" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref128" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">128</a>
From a comedy&nbsp;(?) by an unknown author; yet Ribbeck, 1.300‑1,
suspects that the verse may belong to a dispute between Jason and Medea
in Ennius' <i>Medea</i>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note129" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref129" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">129</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#24" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">2.xvi.24
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note130" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref130" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">130</a>
Probably from the <i>Thyestes</i> of Ennius; see Vahlen, pp.&nbsp;ccx
and&nbsp;183. Thesprotus is perhaps interceding to reconcile the
estranged brothers Atreus and Thyestes. But if the reading <span lang="la" class="Latin">Chrespontem</span> (<span class="manuscript">E</span>&nbsp;<span lang="la" class="Latin">threspontem</span>) is correct, the verses are from the <i>Cresphontes</i> of Ennius; see Ribbeck, 1.34. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#91" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlix.91</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note131" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref131" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">131</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#90" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlviii.90</a>.<!-- sic, same as next -->
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note132" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref132" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">132</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#90" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlviii.90</a>.<!-- sic, same as preceding -->
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note133" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref133" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">133</a>
Assigned to the <i>Medus</i> of Pacuvius; Medea is speaking to Aeetes.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note134" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref134" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">134</a>
Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#88" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlvii.88</a>, gives a different treatment of ambiguity.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note135" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref135" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">135</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#91" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.lxix.91</a>. The "general definition" represents the same kind of fault as the last type of weak Reason in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#37" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xxiv.37
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note136" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref136" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">136</a>
See the definition of <span lang="la" class="Latin">iniuria</span> in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/4B*.html#35" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
4.xxv.35
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note137" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref137" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">137</a>
The fallacy of Begging the Question.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note138" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref138" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">138</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;2.24 (1401<span class="small">B</span>), illustrating, among the sham enthymemes, the <span class="translit_Greek">topos</span> from a&nbsp;"sign": "Suppose that
<a id="p133x"></a>some one calls Dionysius a thief 'because he is a
rogue.' There is, of course, no logical argument here; not every rogue
is a thief, though every thief is a rogue."
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note139" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref139" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">139</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#39.7" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">the last fault considered in&nbsp;2.xxv.39
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note140" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref140" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">140</a>
Perhaps from the <i>Armorum Iudium</i> of Accius (Warmington, 2.362) rather than from the play of the same name by Pacuvius (Marx, <i>Proleg.</i>, p132); see Tolkiehn, <i><span lang="de">Berl. Philol. Wochenschr.</span></i> 37&nbsp;(1917), 827‑8. Ajax speaks for the arms of Achilles which Agamemnon, on Athena's advice, later awarded to Ulysses.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note141" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref141" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">141</a>
The fragment is from a tragedy by an unknown author<span class="emend">.</span><!-- Loeb has comma --> The example was a favourite of the rhetoricians. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Cicero, <a id="p135x"></a><i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#83" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.xlv.83</a>,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#93" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.l.93</a>; Victorinus, in Halm, p253: C.&nbsp;Julius Victor, ch.&nbsp;12, in Halm, p414.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note142" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref142" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">142</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#92" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlix.92</a>, and
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/oratore2.shtml#304" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Oratore</i> 2.75.304‑5</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note143" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref143" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">143</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#94" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.l.94</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note144" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref144" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">144</a>
The fallacy of Shifting Ground. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#94" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.l.94</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note145" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref145" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">145</a>
The twins in the <i>Antiopa</i> (as in the <i>Antiope</i> of Euripides)
engage in a famous debate: the practical Zethus, hostile to culture,
finds fault with Amphion's love of music, and urges the virile active
life of farming, cattle breeding, and war; the cultivated Amphion
praises music and the life of contemplation. Amphion yields "to his
brother's mood" so far as to still his lyre; see
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/epist1.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Horace\'s <I>Epistles</I>, Book 1'+Lat2+LatSearch+'Amphionis</SPAN>',WIDTH,185)" onmouseout="nd();">
Hor.&nbsp;<i>Epist.</i> 1.18.43‑4</a>. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#94" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.l.94</a>,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/oratore2.shtml#155" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Oratore</i> 2.37.155</a>,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/repub1.shtml#30" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Re&nbsp;Publ.</i> 1.18</a>, and Callicles in Plato, <i>Gorgias</i> 485<span class="small">E</span>&nbsp;ff. The separation of musical from philosophical studies represents a Roman point of view.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note146" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref146" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">146</a>
The argument is not <i>ad&nbsp;rem</i> but <i>ad&nbsp;hominem</i>; the fallacy of Ignoring the Question. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#94" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.l.94</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note147" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref147" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">147</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/12A*.html#1.32" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">Quintilian, 12.1.32</a>:
"Let us banish from our hearts the notion that eloquence, the fairest
of all things, can combine with vicious character"; Philodemus, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;2.270,
ed.&nbsp;Sudhaus: "But it is clear to all that many orators are very
able, yet in character thoroughly depraved;" Plato, <i>Gorgias</i> 457<span class="small">A</span>, and Ludwig Radermacher, <i>Artium Scriptores</i>, <i><span lang="de">Sitzungsber. Österreich. Akad. (philos.-hist. Klasse)</span></i><!-- Loeb failed to italicize --> 227,&nbsp;3 (Vienna, 1951), 45.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note148" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref148" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">148</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#94" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.l.94</a>. Yet this procedure is not faulty when followed in the Statement of Facts; see
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#30" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xxi.30</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note149" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref149" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">149</a>
A&nbsp;deliberative problem; our author has in the first two books been emphasizing the judicial kind.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note150" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref150" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">150</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#94" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.l.94</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note151" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref151" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">151</a>
Most probably for her faithfulness to Rome in the Marsic War, in which
she gallantly withstood a siege, Alba Fucens, a city of the Aequi on the
borders of the Marsi in Central Italy, was rewarded with the status of <span lang="la" class="Latin">municipium</span>;
Pinna (or Penna), at the foot of the Apennines, a chief city of the
Vestini, was also faithful to Rome (although the other Vestini were in
revolt) and endured a hard siege.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note152" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref152" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">152</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/arspoet.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Horace\'s Ars Poetica'+Lat2+LatSearch+'norma</SPAN>',WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Horace, <i>Ars Poet.</i>&nbsp;72</a>: "Usage (<span lang="la" class="Latin">usus</span> =&nbsp;<span lang="la" class="Latin">consuetudo</span> =&nbsp;<span lang="el" class="Greek">συνήθεια</span>), in whose hands lie the decision (<span lang="la" class="Latin">arbitrium</span>), rights (<span lang="la" class="Latin">ius</span>), and standard (<span lang="la" class="Latin">norma</span>) of speaking"; Demetrius, <i>De&nbsp;Elocut.</i> 2.86: "Usage, which is our teacher always," and 2.87, in which he makes usage his "standard" (<span lang="el" class="Greek">κανών</span> =&nbsp;<span lang="la" class="Latin">norma</span>).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note153" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref153" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">153</a>
In&nbsp;90&nbsp;<span class="small">B.C.</span>, after the outbreak of
the Marsic War, the tribune L.&nbsp;Varius Hybrida introduced a law on
treason directed against the senatorial leaders; it inquired into the
actions of those who helped or advised the allies to take up arms
against Rome. Sulpicius' law in&nbsp;88 restored the exiles who had been
condemned without a hearing either by the Varian Commission or by the
court established under the <span lang="la" class="Latin">Lex
<a id="p141x"></a>Plautia Iudiciaria</span> of&nbsp;90/89, but was
itself later in the year repealed by Sulla. Why Sulpicius had earlier
voted against a proposal to recall the exiles is not clear, for many of
these belonged to his own party. The grounds for the veto were probably
constitutional, and the new form of the proposal may have been intended
to avoid constitutional objections that the decisions of the courts were
being nullified; or perhaps popular opinion pressed him to change his
mind. It was through the interdiction of fire and water, the symbol of
the community, that the capital sentence was carried into effect. See
Ernst Levy, <i>Die röm. Kapitalstrafe</i>, <i><span lang="de">Sitzungsber. Heidelberg. Akad. (philos.-hist. Klasse)</span></i><!-- Loeb failed to italicize --> 21,&nbsp;5 (1930‑31), 14&nbsp;ff.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note154" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref154" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">154</a>
The author here seems to betray bias in favour of the Popular party; but see the Introduction to the present volume,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/Introduction*.html#the_authors_politics" target="princeps" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
pp.&nbsp;xxiii&nbsp;f.</a>
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note155" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref155" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">155</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#82" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.lxiv.82</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note156" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref156" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">156</a>
Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;2.25 (1403<span class="small">A</span>).
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/5D*.html#13.24" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian, 5.13.24</a>, Anon. Seg.&nbsp;187 (<span class="whole">Spengel-Hammer</span> 1[2].385), and Apsines, <i>Ars Rhet.</i>&nbsp;9 (<span class="whole">Spengel-Hammer</span> 1[2].283‑5) treat the invalidation of examples (<span lang="el" class="Greek">λύσεις παραδειγμάτων</span>).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note157" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref157" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">157</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#82" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xliv.82</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note158" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref158" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">158</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#92" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlix.92</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note159" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref159" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">159</a>
Two functions are differentiated, the logical and emotional; see
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#47" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xxx.47&nbsp;ff.
</a>
below. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#92" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xlix.92</a>; in Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;2.24 (1401<span class="small">B</span>), the <span class="translit_Greek">topos</span> (among the sham enthymemes) of indignation (<span lang="el" class="Greek">δείνωσις</span>) — the speaker amplifies the deed without having proved his case.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note160" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref160" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">160</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#67" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.xxxvii.67</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note161" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref161" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">161</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">ἐπίλογοι</span>. The Isocratic theory of
the Conclusion was also tripartite; to Theodectes (whose rhetorical
system was based on the parts of the discourse) its functions are to
stir the emotions, especially anger and pity, to praise or blame, and to
recall what has been said. See Hugo Rabe, <i>Proleg. Syll.</i>, Leipzig, 1931, pp32 and&nbsp;216; Anon. Seg.&nbsp;208‑9, in <span class="whole">Spengel-Hammer</span> 1(2).389; Friedrich Solmsen in <i>Hermes</i>&nbsp;67&nbsp;(1932). The <i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i>, ch.&nbsp;36 (1444<span class="small">B</span>‑1445<span class="small">A</span>),
discusses the part played in Conclusions by the Summary and
Conciliation of the Audience (including the Appeal to Pity), together
with Discrediting the Opponent. To Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;3.19 (1419<span class="small">B</span>),
the Conclusion has four functions: to conciliate the audience and
discredit the opponent, to modify and depreciate, to excite the emotions
required by the case, and to review what has been said. Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#98" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.lii.98</a>, divides <span lang="la" class="Latin">conclusio</span> into Summing Up, Invective (<span lang="la" class="Latin">indignatio</span>, <span lang="el" class="Greek">δείνωσις</span>), and Appeal to Pity (<span lang="la" class="Latin">conquestio</span>); in
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/partitione.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Cicero\'s<BR><I>De Partitione Oratoria</I>'+Lat2+LatSearch+'extrema tibi</SPAN>',WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>Part. Orat.</i> 15.52&nbsp;ff.
</a>
the <span lang="la" class="Latin">peroratio</span> is restricted
(doubtless because the work is in the form of an isagogic dialogue) to
two divisions, Amplification and Summing Up, Invective and Appeal to
Pity being subordinate to Amplification. Anon. Seg.&nbsp;203 (<span class="whole">Spengel-Hammer</span> 1[2].454) considers the Conclusion as dealing with either facts (<span lang="el" class="Greek">τὸ πρακτικόν</span>)
<a id="p145x"></a>or emotions (<span lang="el" class="Greek">τὸ παθητικόν</span>), pla­cing the Summary in the former class; so also
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/6A*.html#1" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian,&nbsp;6.1.1</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note162" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref162" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">162</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">ἀνάμνησις</span>, <span lang="el" class="Greek">ἀνακεφαλαίωσις</span>. In <i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i>, ch.&nbsp;20 (1433<span class="small">B</span>), <span lang="el" class="Greek">παλιλλογία</span>. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i>, <i>l.c.</i>:
"When Summing Up we shall recapitulate either in the form of a division
or a recommendation of policy or of a question or of an enumeration;"
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/partitione.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Cicero\'s<BR><I>De Partitione Oratoria</I>'+Lat2+LatSearch+'Huius tempora</SPAN>',WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
Cicero, <i>Part. Orat.</i>&nbsp;17.59</a>: "there are two occasions for
the Summing Up — if you mistrust the memory of those before whom you are
pleading whether on account of the length of time elapsed [since the
events you have been discussing took place] or on account of the length
of your speech, or if, by repeatedly presenting arguments that
strengthen your speech and setting these forth briefly, your case will
have more force;
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/6A*.html#1" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian,&nbsp;6.1.1</a>: "The Summing Up .&nbsp;.&nbsp;. both refreshes the memory of the <span lang="la" class="Latin">iudex</span> and at the same time places the whole case before his eyes." <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;the <span lang="la" class="Latin">enumeratio</span> of
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html#17" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.x.17
</a>
above, and <span lang="la" class="Latin">complexio</span>, the Résumé of an argument
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#28" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xviii.28
</a>
above.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note163" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref163" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">163</a>
See
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/4A*.html#note37" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
note on 4.vii.10
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note164" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref164" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">164</a>
The purpose of Amplification is <span lang="el" class="Greek">δείνωσις</span> (<span lang="la" class="Latin">indignatio</span>&nbsp;in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/4B*.html#22" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
4.xv.22
</a>
and
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/4C*.html#51" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
4.xxxix.51</a>,
<span lang="la" class="Latin">iracundia</span> in
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/3*.html#24" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
3.xiii.24</a>). Note that the <span lang="la" class="Latin">loci communes</span> (see <a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#note33" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,5,WIDTH,140)" onmouseout="nd();">note on 2.vi.9
</a>
above) are here attached to Amplification (<span lang="el" class="Greek">αὔξησις</span>),
which, in turn, is a subhead under the Conclusion. The theory of
Amplification was first formed for epideictic; Gorgias, Tisias (Plato, <i>Phaedrus</i>&nbsp;267<span class="small">A</span>), and Isocrates gave it prominence. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/partitione.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Cicero\'s<BR><I>De Partitione Oratoria</I>'+Lat2+LatSearch+'est proprius</SPAN>',WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>Part. Orat.</i>&nbsp;15.52</a>:
"The right place for Amplification is in the Peroration; but also in
the course of the speech there are opportunities to digress for the sake
of amplification, when some point has been proved or refuted.
Amplification is, then, a more impressive affirmation, so to speak,
which by moving the mind wins belief in speaking;"
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/partitione.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Cicero\'s<BR><I>De Partitione Oratoria</I>'+Lat2+LatSearch+'Sed amplificatio</SPAN>',WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
8.27</a>: "Although Amplification has its own proper place, often in the opening of a
<a id="p147x"></a>speech, and almost always at the end, yet it is to be
used also in other parts of the discourse, especially when a point has
been proved or refuted." Cicero,
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#100" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>&nbsp;1.liii.100‑liv.105</a>, gives five additional <span lang="la" class="Latin">loci</span>
for invective; his No.&nbsp;12 is like our author's No.&nbsp;8. There
are correspondences between our author's commonplaces and those listed
in Aristotle, <i>Rhet.</i>&nbsp;1.14 (1374<span class="small">B</span>‑1375<span class="small">A</span>); <i>cf.</i>,&nbsp;<i>e.g.</i>, <span lang="el" class="Greek">μόνος ἢ&nbsp;πρῶτος</span> (our author's No.&nbsp;8), <span lang="el" class="Greek">τὸ θηριωδέστερον ἀδίκημα</span> (No.&nbsp;7), <span lang="el" class="Greek">ἐκ προνοίας</span> (No.&nbsp;6), <span lang="el" class="Greek">ἴασις</span> (No.&nbsp;5); on correspondences with those in the <i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i> see Claus Peters, pp100‑101. Peters, and Octave Navarre, <i><span lang="fr">Essai sur la Rhétorique Grecque avant Aristote</span></i>, Paris, 1900, pp304&nbsp;ff., illustrate the use made of several of these commonplaces by Greek orators. See Walter Plöbst, <i><span lang="de">Die Auxesis</span></i>, diss. Munich,&nbsp;1911.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify" id="note165">
<a class="note" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref165a" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">165a</a>
<a class="note" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref165b" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">165b</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#101" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.liii.101</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note166" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref166" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">166</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/3*.html#10" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">3.vi.10
</a>
below.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note167" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref167" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">167</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i>
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#101" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
1.liii.101
</a>
and
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione2.shtml#100" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
2.xxxii.100</a>; the <span lang="la" class="Latin">locus qui efficitur ex causis</span> in
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/topica.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Cicero\'s Topica'+Lat2+LatSearch+'Coniunctus</SPAN>',WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>Top.</i>&nbsp;18.67</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note168" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref168" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">168</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#102" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.liii.102</a>; <i>Rhet. ad Alex.</i>, ch.&nbsp;4 (1427<span class="small">A</span>).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify" id="note169">
<a class="note" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref169a" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">169a</a>
<a class="note" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref169b" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">169b</a>
<a class="note" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref169c" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">169c</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#102" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.liii.102</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note170" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref170" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">170</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#103" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.liv.103</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note171" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref171" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">171</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">ἄντιπαραβολή</span>. See the example of the grand style,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/4A*.html#12" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
4.viii.12
</a>
below, for a use of this commonplace. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/6B*.html#2.21" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">Quintilian, 6.2.21</a>:
"For some things are heinous in themselves, such as parricide, murder,
poisoning, but other things have to be made to seem heinous;" and
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#104" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.liv.104</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note172" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref172" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">172</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">ἐκτύπωσις</span>. <i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;the figures <span lang="la" class="Latin">descriptio</span>,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/4C*.html#51" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
4.xxxix.51</a>, and <span lang="la" class="Latin">demonstratio</span>,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/4C*.html#68" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
4.lv.68
</a>
below;
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#104" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
Cicero, <i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.liv.104</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note173" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref173" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">173</a>
<span lang="el" class="Greek">ἔλεος</span>, <span lang="el" class="Greek">οἶκτος</span>. Cicero's treatment in
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#106" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.lv.106‑lvi.109
</a>
is fuller, listing sixteen <span lang="la" class="Latin">loci</span> of <span lang="la" class="Latin">conquestio</span>. Karl Aulitzky, <i><span lang="de">Wiener Studien</span></i> 39&nbsp;(1917), 26‑49, believes that Cicero and our author here use a common Roman source which may derive from Apollonius <span lang="el" class="Greek">ὁ&nbsp;μαλακός</span>. That the
<a id="p151x"></a>Appeal to Pity belongs in the Conclusion of a forensic speech is a concept of <span class="whole">pre-Aristotelian</span> rhetoric; <i>cf.</i>&nbsp;<i>Rhet. ad&nbsp;Alex.</i>, ch.&nbsp;36 (1445<span class="small">A</span>).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note174" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref174" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">174</a>
<i>Cf.</i>&nbsp;<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/partitione.shtml" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(EClickHere+'Cicero\'s<BR><I>De Partitione Oratoria</I>'+Lat2+LatSearch+'ex beato</SPAN>',WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">Cicero, <i>Part. Orat.</i>&nbsp;17.57</a>: "For nothing is so pitiable as a man who has become pitiable after having been happy." Aristotle, <i>Poetics</i>, ch.&nbsp;13 (1452<span class="small">B</span>‑1453).
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note175" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref175" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">175</a>
So also <i>Rhet. ad Alex.</i>, ch.&nbsp;36 (1445<span class="small">A</span>), and
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/6A*.html#1.19" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
Quintilian,&nbsp;6.1.19</a>.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note176" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref176" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">176</a>
Quintilian,
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/6A*.html#1.18" target="Quintilian_E" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
6.1.18</a>, offers similar advice to the accuser who is exciting pity for the man he is seeking to avenge.
</p><p class="ivy">❦</p>
<p class="justify">
<a class="note" id="note177" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html#ref177" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,BackRef,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">177</a>
The proverb is attributed by Cicero, in
<a href="https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/inventione1.shtml#109" target="offsite" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,LatinRef2,WIDTH,195)" onmouseout="nd();">
<i>De&nbsp;Inv.</i> 1.lvi.109</a>, to Apollonius the rhetorician, who is perhaps to be identified with Apollonius <span lang="el" class="Greek">ὁ&nbsp;μαλακός</span> (born <i>c.</i>&nbsp;160&nbsp;<span class="small">B.C.</span>) rather than with Apollonius Molon, Cicero's teacher. Both <span lang="el" class="Greek">ὁ&nbsp;μαλακός</span> and Molon (later) taught at Rhodes. For a study of the proverb see G.&nbsp;D.&nbsp;Kellogg, <i>Amer. Journ. Philol.</i> 28&nbsp;(1907), 301‑10<!--</A>JOURNAL:AJP:28-->.
</p><table class="footer" id="navbar">
<tbody><tr>
<td class="upcell1"><p class="large left"><a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/1*.html" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
◂&nbsp;previous
</a></p></td>
<td colspan="5"></td>
<td class="upcell1"><p class="large right"><a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/3*.html" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,0,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
next&nbsp;▸
</a></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="help_bar" colspan="7">
<p>
Images with borders lead to more information.
<br>
The thicker the border, the more information.
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/HELP/Navigation/links.html" target="help" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
(Details here.)
</a>
</p></td>
</tr>
<tr class="up">
<td class="upcell1" rowspan="1" colspan="2">
UP TO:
</td>
<td class="upcell">
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/home.html" target="index" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
<img title="" class="thumb2" src="book_2_files/thumbnail.gif" alt="[Onsite link]"><br>
Ad&nbsp;Herennium
</a>
</td>
<td class="upcell">
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/home.html" target="index" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
<img title="" class="thumb4" src="book_2_files/thumbnail_003.gif" alt="
[image ALT: Link to the homepage of the Classical Texts subsite]
"><br>
Classical
<br>
Texts
</a>
</td>
<td class="upcell">
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/home.html" target="index" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
<img title="" class="thumb4" src="book_2_files/thumbnail_.gif" alt="[Link to the LacusCurtius homepage]"><br>
LacusCurtius
</a>
</td>
<td class="upcell">
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/home.html" target="index" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
<img title="" class="thumb4" src="book_2_files/home_.gif" alt="[Link to my homepage]"><br>
Home
</a>
</td>
</tr>
<tr class="lagoon">
<td colspan="7"><div align="center">
<!-- SiteSearch Google -->
<form method="GET" action="https://www.google.com/search">
<input type="hidden" name="ie" value="UTF-8">
<input type="hidden" name="oe" value="UTF-8">
<table>
<tbody><tr><td valign="bottom">
<a href="https://www.google.com/">
<img title="" class="GoogleLogo" src="book_2_files/logo__.gif" alt="[Google search box]"></a>
</td>
<td valign="bottom">
<p class="nudge right">
<input type="text" name="q" size="36" maxlength="255" title="Search with Google">
<input type="submit" name="btnG" value="Search This Site">
<input type="hidden" name="domains" value="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/">
<br>
<input type="hidden" name="sitesearch" value="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/" checked="checked">
</p></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</form>
<!-- SiteSearch Google -->
</div></td></tr>
<tr>
<td class="help_bar" colspan="7">
<p class="m1 justify">
A&nbsp;page or image on this site is in the public domain ONLY if its URL has a total of one <span class="asterisk">*</span>asterisk. If the URL has two <span class="asterisk">**</span>asterisks, the item is copyright someone else, and used by permission or fair use. If the URL has none the item is <i>©</i>&nbsp;Bill Thayer.
</p><p class="m1 center">
See
<a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/HELP/Copyright/home.html" target="help" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,1,WIDTH,165)" onmouseout="nd();">
my copyright page
</a>
for details and contact information.
</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div><p class="W3C">
<a href="https://validator.w3.org/check?uri=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium/2*.html&amp;verbose=1" target="W3C" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,2,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();"><img title="" class="W3C" src="book_2_files/401.png" alt="
[image ALT: Valid HTML&nbsp;4.01.]
"></a>
</p><p class="r1">
Page updated:<!-- MARK -->
5&nbsp;Mar&nbsp;18
</p><div class="spacious">
<p class="UCFooter">
<a href="https://accessibility.uchicago.edu/" target="accessibility" onmouseover="return Ebox(INARRAY,2,WIDTH,175)" onmouseout="nd();">
Accessibility</a>
</p></div>
</body></html>
Reference in a new issue View git blame Copy permalink